| Author | Stephen Jay Gould |
| Source | From The Panda’s Thumb: More Reflections in Natural History (W. W. Norton, 1980), 59–68; originally published in Natural History, December 1979 (handout footnote). |
| Genre | Essay; its central question (class notes): “What is the nature of scientific creativity?” RJJ L2903–2918 |
| Central claim | Darwin’s theory came neither from pure induction nor from a sudden eureka: “Darwin trod the middle path between inductivism and eurekaism.” ¶18 The class summary: creativity = evidence + hypotheses + testing + revision + interdisciplinary insight RJJ L544–562. |
| Key structure | Allusion (¶1–2) → two extremes (¶3–6) → Darwin as test case (¶7) → against inductivism (¶8–14) → against eurekaism (¶15–17) → thesis (¶18) → scholarship (¶19–21) → analogy to Adam Smith (¶22–25) → objection 1: social origin, Marx & Kautsky (¶26–28) → objection 2: luck, Pasteur (¶29). |
| Key devices | Allusion / controlling metaphor (Scylla and Charybdis) · interrogative mood · diction as verdict · quoting the opponent at full length · refutation by absence · appeal to scholarship · analogy across fields · concession → refutation · concession → reframe · borrowed authority (Pasteur). |
¶1"We began to sail up the narrow strait lamenting," narrates Odysseus. "For on the one hand lay Scylla, with twelve feet all dangling down; and six necks exceeding long, and on each a hideous head, and therein three rows of teeth set thick and close, full of black death. And on the other mighty Charybdis sucked down the salt sea water. As often as she belched it forth, like a cauldron on a great fire she would seethe up through all her troubled deeps." Odysseus managed to swerve around Charybdis, but Scylla grabbed six of his finest men and devoured them in his sight--"the most pitiful thing mine eyes have seen of all my travail in searching out the paths of the sea."
¶2False lures and dangers often come in pairs in our legends and metaphors— consider the frying pan and the fire, or the devil and the deep blue sea. Prescriptions for avoidance either emphasize a dogged steadiness—the straight and narrow of Christian evangelists—or an averaging between unpleasant alternatives—the golden mean of Aristotle. The idea of steering a course between undesirable extremes emerges as a central prescription for a sensible life.
¶3The nature of scientific creativity is both a perennial topic of discussion and a prime candidate for seeking a golden mean. The two extreme positions have not been directly competing for the allegiance of the unwary. They have, rather, replaced each other sequentially, with one now in the ascendancy, the other eclipsed.
¶4The first—inductivism—held that great scientists are primarily great observers and patient accumulators of information. For new and significant theory, the inductivists claimed, can only arise from a firm foundation of facts. In this architectural view, each fact is a brick in a structure built without blueprints. Any talk or thought about theory (the completed building) is fatuous and premature before the bricks are set. Inductivism once commanded great prestige within science, and even represented an "official" position of sorts, for it touted, however falsely, the utter honesty, complete objectivity, and almost automatic nature of scientific progress towards final and incontrovertible truth.
¶5Yet, as its critics so rightly claimed, inductivism also depicted science as a heartless, almost inhuman discipline offering no legitimate place to quirkiness, intuition, and all the other subjective attributes adhering to our vernacular notion of genius. Great scientists, the critics claimed, are distinguished more by their powers of hunch and synthesis than their skill in experiment or observation. The criticisms of inductivism are certainly valid and I welcome its dethroning during the past thirty years as a necessary prelude to better understanding. Yet, in attacking it so strongly, some critics have tried to substitute an alternative equally extreme and unproductive in its emphasis on the essential subjectivity of creative thought. In this "eureka" view, creativity is an ineffable something, accessible only to persons of genius. It arises like a bolt of lightning, unanticipated, unpredictable and unanalyzable—but the bolts strike only a few special people. We ordinary mortals must stand in awe and thanks. (The name refers, of course, to the legendary story of Archimedes running naked through the streets of Syracuse shouting eureka [I have discovered it] when water displaced by his bathing body washed the scales abruptly from his eyes and suggested a method (for measuring volumes.)
¶6I am equally disenchanted by both these opposing extremes. Inductivism reduces genius to dull, rote operations; eurekaism grants it an inaccessible status more in the domain of intrinsic mystery than in a realm where we might understand and learn from it. Might we not marry the good features of each view, and abandon both the elitism of eurekaism and the pedestrian qualities of inductivism? May we not acknowledge the personal and subjective character of creativity, but still comprehend it as a mode of thinking that emphasizes or exaggerates capacities sufficiently common to all of us that we may at least understand if not hope to imitate?
¶7In the hagiography of science, a few men hold such high positions that all arguments must apply to them if they are to have any validity. Charles Darwin, as the principal saint of evolutionary biology, has therefore been presented both as an inductivist and as a primary example of eurekaism. I will attempt to show that these interpretations are equally inadequate, and that recent scholarship on Darwin's own odyssey towards the theory of natural selection supports an intermediate position.
¶8So great was the prestige of inductivism in his own day, that Darwin himself fell under its sway and, as an old man, falsely depicted his youthful accomplishment in its light. In an autobiography, written as a lesson in morality for his children and not intended for publication, he penned some famous lines that misled historians for nearly a hundred years. Describing his path to the theory of natural selection, he claimed: "I worked on true Baconian principles, and without any theory collected facts on a wholesale scale."
¶9The inductivist interpretation focuses on Darwin's five years aboard the Beagle and explains his transition from a student for the ministry to the nemesis of preachers as the result of his keen powers of observation applied to the whole world. Thus, the traditional story goes, Darwin's eyes opened wider and wider as he saw, in sequence, the bones of giant South American fossil mammals, the turtles and finches of the Galapagos, and the marsupial fauna of Australia. The truth of evolution and its mechanism of natural selection crept up gradually upon him as he sifted facts in a sieve of utter objectivity.
¶10The inadequacies of this tale are best illustrated by the falsity of its conventional premier example—the so-called Darwin's finches of the Galapagos. We now know that although these birds share a recent and common ancestry on the South American mainland, they have radiated into an impressive array of species on the outlying Galapagos. Few terrestrial species manage to cross the wide oceanic barrier between South America and the Galapagos. But the fortunate migrants often find a sparsely inhabited world devoid of the competitors that limit their opportunities on the crowded mainland. Hence, the finches evolved into roles normally occupied by other birds and developed their famous set of adaptations for feeding--seed crushing, insect eating, even grasping and manipulating a cactus needle to dislodge insects from plants. Isolation—both of the islands from the mainland and among the islands themselves—provided an opportunity for separation, independent adaptation, and speciation.
¶11According to the traditional view, Darwin discovered these finches, correctly inferred their history, and wrote the famous lines in his notebook: "If there is the slightest foundation for these remarks the zoology of Archipelagoes will be worth examining; for such facts would undermine the stability of Species." But, as with so many heroic tales from Washington's cherry tree to the piety of Crusaders, hope rather than truth motivates the common reading. Darwin found the finches, to be sure. But he didn't recognize them as variants of a common stock. In fact, he didn't even record the island of discovery for many of them—some of his labels just read "Galapagos Islands." So much for his immediate recognition of the role of isolation in the formation of new species. He reconstructed the evolutionary tale only after his return to London, when a British Museum ornithologist correctly identified all the birds as finches.
¶12The famous quotation from his notebook refers to Galapagos tortoises and to the claim of native inhabitants that they can "at once pronounce from which Island any Tortoise may have been brought" from subtle differences in size and shape of body and scales. This is a statement of different, and much reduced, order from the traditional tale of finches. For the finches are true and separate species—a living example of evolution. The subtle differences among tortoises represent minor geographic variation within a species. It is a jump in reasoning, albeit a valid one as we now know, to argue that such small differences can be amplified to produce a new species. All creationists, after all, acknowledged geographic variation (consider human races), but argued that it could not proceed beyond the rigid limits of a created archetype.
¶13I don't wish to downplay the pivotal influence of the Beagle voyage on Darwin's career. It gave him space, freedom and endless time to think in his favored mode of independent self-stimulation. (His ambivalence towards university life and his middling performance there by conventional standards reflected his unhappiness with a curriculum of received wisdom.) He writes from South America in 1834: "I have not one clear idea about cleavage, stratification, lines of upheaval. I have no books, which tell me much and what they do I cannot apply to what I see. In consequence I draw my own conclusions, and most gloriously ridiculous ones they are." The rocks and plants and animals that he saw did provoke him to the crucial attitude of doubt—midwife of all creativity. Sydney, Australia—1836. Darwin wonders why a rational God would create so many marsupials on Australia since nothing about its climate or geography suggests any superiority for pouches: "I had been lying on a sunny bank and was reflecting on the strange character of the animals of this country as compared to the rest of the World. An unbeliever in everything beyond his own reason might exclaim, ‘Surely two distinct Creators must have been at work.’"
¶14Nonetheless, Darwin returned to London without an evolutionary theory. He suspected the truth of evolution, but had no mechanism to explain it. Natural selection did not arise from any direct reading of the Beagle's facts, but from two subsequent years of thought and struggle as reflected in a series of remarkable notebooks that have been unearthed and published during the past twenty years. In these notebooks, we see Darwin testing and abandoning a number of theories and pursuing a multitude of false leads—so much for his later claim about recording facts with an empty mind. He read philosophers, poets, and economists, always searching for meaning and insight—so much for the notion that natural selection arose inductively from the Beagle's facts. Later, he labeled one notebook as "full of metaphysics on morals."
¶15Yet if this tortuous path belies the Scylla of inductivism, it has engendered an equally simplistic myth—the Charybdis of eurekaism. In his maddeningly misleading autobiography, Darwin does record a eureka and suggests that natural selection struck him as a sudden, serendipitous flash after more than a year of groping frustration:
¶16In October 1838, that is, fifteen months after I had begun my systematic inquiry, I happened to read for amusement Malthus on Population, and being well prepared to appreciate the struggle for existence which everywhere goes on from long-continued observation of the habits of animals and plants, it at once struck me that under these circumstances favorable variations would tend to be preserved, and unfavorable ones to be destroyed. The result of this would be the formation of new species. Here, then, I had at last got a theory by which to work.
¶17Yet, again, the notebooks belie Darwin's later recollections--in this case by their utter failure to record, at the time it happened, any special exultation over his Malthusian insight. He inscribes it as a fairly short and sober entry without a single exclamation point, though he habitually used two or three in moments of excitement. He did not drop everything and reinterpret a confusing world in its light. On the very next day, he wrote an even longer passage on the sexual curiosity of primates.
¶18The theory of natural selection arose neither as a workmanlike induction from nature's facts, nor as a mysterious bolt from Darwin's subconscious, triggered by an accidental reading of Malthus. It emerged instead as the result of a conscious and productive search, proceeding in a ramifying but ordered manner, and utilizing both the facts of natural history and an astonishingly broad range of insights from disparate disciplines far from his own. Darwin trod the middle path between inductivism and eurekaism. His genius is neither pedestrian nor inaccessible.
¶19Darwinian scholarship has exploded since the centennial of the Origin in 1959. The publication of Darwin's notebooks and the attention devoted by several scholars to the two crucial years between the Beagle's docking and the demoted Malthusian insight has clinched the argument for a "middle path" theory of Darwin's creativity. Two particularly important works focus on the broadest and narrowest scales. Howard E. Gruber's masterful intellectual and psychological biography of this phase in Darwin's life, Darwin on Man, traces all the false leads and turning points in Darwin's search. Gruber shows that Darwin was continually proposing, testing, and abandoning hypotheses, and that he never simply collected facts in a blind way. He began with a fanciful theory involving the idea that new species arise with a prefixed life span, and worked his way gradually, if fitfully, towards an idea of extinction by competition in a world of struggle. He recorded no exultation upon reading Malthus, because the jigsaw puzzle was only missing a piece or two at the time.
¶20Silvan S. Schweber has reconstructed, in detail as minute as the record will allow, Darwin's activities during the few weeks before Malthus (The Origin of the Origin Revisited, Journal of the History of Biology, 1977). He argues that the final pieces arose not from new facts in natural history, but from Darwin's intellectual wanderings in distant fields. In particular, he read a long review of social scientist and philosopher Auguste Comte’s most famous work, the Cours de philosophie positive. He was particularly struck by Comte's insistence that a proper theory be predictive and at least potentially quantitative. He then turned to Dugald Stewart's On the Life and Writing of Adam Smith, and imbibed the basic belief of the Scottish economists that theories of overall social structure must begin by analyzing the unconstrained actions of individuals. (Natural selection is, above all, a theory about the struggle of individual organisms for success in reproduction.) Then, searching for quantification, he read a lengthy analysis of work by the most famous statistician of his time—the Belgian Adolphe Quetelet. In the review of Quetelet, he found, among other things, a forceful statement of Malthus's quantitative claim—that population would grow geometrically and food supplies only arithmetically, thus guaranteeing an intense struggle for existence. In fact, Darwin had read the Malthusian statement several times before; but only now was he prepared to appreciate its significance. Thus, he did not turn to Malthus by accident, and he already knew what it contained. His "amusement," we must assume, consisted only in a desire to read in its original formulation the familiar statement that had so impressed him in Quetelet's secondary account.
¶21In reading Schweber's detailed account of the moments preceding Darwin's formulation of natural selection, I was particularly struck by the absence of deciding influence from his own field of biology. The immediate precipitators were a social scientist, an economist, and a statistician. If genius has any common denominator, I would propose breadth of interest and the ability to construct fruitful analogies between fields.
¶22In fact, I believe that the theory of natural selection should be viewed as an extended analogy—whether conscious or unconscious on Darwin's part I do not know—to the laissez faire economics of Adam Smith. The essence of Smith's argument is a paradox of sorts: if you want an ordered economy providing maximal benefits to all, then let individuals compete and struggle for their own advantages. The result, after appropriate sorting and elimination of the inefficient, will be a stable and harmonious polity. Apparent order arises naturally from the struggle among individuals, not from predestined principles or higher control. Dugald Stewart epitomized Smith's system in the book Darwin read:
¶23The most effective plan for advancing a people…is by allowing every man, as long as he observes the rules of justice, to pursue his own interest in his own way, and to bring both his industry and his capital into the freest competition with those of his fellow citizens. Every system of policy which endeavors…to draw towards a particular species of industry a greater share of the capital of the society than would naturally go to it…is, in reality, subversive of the great purpose which it means to promote.
¶24As Schweber states: "The Scottish analysis of society contends that the combined effect of individual actions results in the institutions upon which society is based, and that such a society is a stable and evolving one and functions without a designing and directing mind."
¶25We know that Darwin's uniqueness does not reside in his support for the idea of evolution—scores of scientists had preceded him in this. His special contribution rests upon his documentation and upon the novel character of his theory about how evolution operates. Previous evolutionists had proposed unworkable schemes based on internal perfecting tendencies and inherent directions. Darwin advocated a natural and testable theory based on immediate interaction among individuals (his opponents considered it heartlessly mechanistic). The theory of natural selection is a creative transfer to biology of Adam Smith's basic argument for a rational economy: the balance and order of nature does not arise from a higher, external (divine) control, or from the existence of laws operating directly upon the whole, but from struggle among individuals for their own benefits (in modern terms, for the transmission of their genes to future generations through differential success in reproduction).
¶26Many people are distressed to hear such an argument. Does it not compromise the integrity of science if some of its primary conclusions originate by analogy from contemporary politics and culture rather than from data of the discipline itself? In a famous letter to Engels, Karl Marx identified the similarities between natural selection and the English social scene:
¶27It is remarkable how Darwin recognizes among beasts and plants his English society with its division of labor, competition, opening up of new markets, ‘invention,’ and the Malthusian ‘struggle for existence.’ It is Hobbes' bellum omnium contra omnes (the war of all against all).
¶28Yet Marx was a great admirer of Darwin—and in this apparent paradox lies resolution. For reasons involving all the themes I have emphasized here that inductivism is inadequate, that creativity demands breadth, and that analogy is a profound source of insight—great thinkers cannot be divorced from their social background. But the source of an idea is one thing; its truth or fruitfulness is another. The psychology and utility of discovery are very different subjects indeed. Darwin may have cribbed the idea of natural selection from economics, but it may still be right. As the German socialist Karl Kautsky wrote in 1902: “The fact that an idea emanates from a particular class, or accords with their interests, of course proves nothing as to its truth or falsity.” In this case, it is ironic that Adam Smith's system of laissez faire does not work in his own domain of economics, for it leads to oligopoly and revolution, rather than to order and harmony. Struggle among individuals does, however, seem to be the law of nature.
¶29Many people use such arguments about social context to ascribe great insights primarily to the indefinable phenomenon of good luck. Thus, Darwin was lucky to be born rich, lucky to be on the Beagle, lucky to live amidst the ideas of his age, lucky to trip over Parson Malthus—essentially little more than a man in the right place at the right time. Yet, when we read of his personal struggle to understand, the breadth of his concerns and study, and the directedness of his search for a mechanism of evolution, we understand why Pasteur made his famous quip that fortune favors the prepared mind.
| Where | Function | Key words (verbatim) |
|---|---|---|
| ¶1 | Opens with Homer’s Odyssey: Odysseus steers between Scylla and Charybdis and still loses six men. This becomes the controlling metaphor of the essay RJJ L2465–2476. | “on the one hand lay Scylla” |
| ¶2 | Familiar paired dangers (proverbs, “the straight and narrow,” the golden mean) → the prescription of steering between extremes RJJ L2737–2858. | “steering a course between undesirable extremes” |
| ¶3 | Names the real topic: scientific creativity, “a prime candidate for seeking a golden mean.” | “The nature of scientific creativity is both a perennial topic of discussion” |
| ¶4 | Extreme 1 — inductivism: facts as bricks; it promised honesty and objectivity RJJ L2943–3040. | “each fact is a brick in a structure built without blueprints” |
| ¶5 | Extreme 2 — the “eureka” view: creativity as a sudden flash accessible only to genius (Archimedes). | “It arises like a bolt of lightning, unanticipated, unpredictable and unanalyzable” |
| ¶6 | Rejects both extremes and asks (in questions) for a position that keeps the good features of each. | “Might we not marry the good features of each view” |
| ¶7 | Brings in Darwin (first named here) as the test case and promises an intermediate position. | “supports an intermediate position” |
| ¶8–9 | Darwin’s own inductivist self-description in his autobiography; the traditional Beagle story. | “I worked on true Baconian principles, and without any theory collected facts on a wholesale scale.” |
| ¶10–12 | Takes apart the finch story — the best-known example of the inductivist reading. | “But he didn't recognize them as variants of a common stock.” |
| ¶13–14 | Concedes the Beagle’s importance, but Darwin came home without a theory; the notebooks show false leads. | “Nonetheless, Darwin returned to London without an evolutionary theory.” |
| ¶15–16 | Turns to the opposite myth and lets Darwin tell his Malthus “eureka” in full RJJ L6–26. | “Here, then, I had at last got a theory by which to work.” |
| ¶17 | Answers it with the notebook: a short, sober entry with no exclamation point; next day, primates RJJ L31–130. | “a fairly short and sober entry without a single exclamation point” |
| ¶18 | Thesis: the middle path — a conscious, productive, branching but ordered search RJJ L135–226. | “a conscious and productive search, proceeding in a ramifying but ordered manner” |
| ¶19 | Appeal to scholarship (Gruber): hypotheses proposed, tested, abandoned; the jigsaw metaphor RJJ L231–419. | “Darwin was continually proposing, testing, and abandoning hypotheses” |
| ¶20–21 | Schweber: the final pieces came from distant fields — Comte, Stewart / Adam Smith, Quetelet RJJ L424–528. | “the final pieces arose not from new facts in natural history, but from Darwin's intellectual wanderings in distant fields” |
| ¶22–25 | Natural selection as an analogy to Adam Smith’s laissez-faire economics RJJ L943–974. | “a creative transfer to biology of Adam Smith's basic argument for a rational economy” |
| ¶26–28 | Objection: does a social origin compromise science? Marx’s letter (concession) → source ≠ truth, Kautsky (refutation) → the irony of Smith RJJ L607–942. | “Does it not compromise the integrity of science” |
| ¶29 | Objection: Darwin was just lucky → conceded, then reframed; ends with Pasteur RJJ L975–1180. | “Thus, Darwin was lucky to be born rich, lucky to be on the Beagle” |
| Device | Definition | Example in this text | Effect |
|---|---|---|---|
| Allusion | a reference to a well-known story, person, or text (worksheet Word Help) | “on the one hand lay Scylla” ¶1 | Gives pathos (danger), imagery, a structure for the whole argument, and memorability; literature is used to explain science RJJ L2709–2732. |
| Controlling metaphor | one image organizes the whole essay | “the Charybdis of eurekaism” ¶15 | The two extremes stay dangers to be steered around; the middle road becomes active navigation RJJ L2534–2557. |
| Proverbs / idioms | familiar sayings about two dangers | “consider the frying pan and the fire, or the devil and the deep blue sea” ¶2 | Reinforce the same structure as Scylla and Charybdis: escaping one danger can land you in the other RJJ L2737–2775. |
| Metaphor (building) | facts = bricks, theory = the completed building | “each fact is a brick in a structure built without blueprints” ¶4 | Shows the inductivist ideal: facts + facts + facts = theory RJJ L2968–2993. |
| Interrogative mood | writing in questions instead of statements (worksheet Word Help) | “Might we not marry the good features of each view” ¶6 | Effect not discussed in class notes (worksheet Q5 asks you to compare it with a statement). |
| Diction as verdict | word choice that judges before proof | “however falsely” ¶4 | Worksheet Q18-I: “Two small words, “however falsely,” judge inductivism before Gould has offered any evidence.” Class notes discuss the same kind of diction in “pedestrian” RJJ L208–226 and “crib” RJJ L852–876. |
| Attacking the strongest example | refuting the best-known evidence of the other side | “the so-called Darwin's finches of the Galapagos” ¶10 | Worksheet Q18-D: “the best-known piece of evidence for the view he is rejecting.” Not discussed in class notes. |
| Quoting the opponent at full length | letting the other side speak before replying | “it at once struck me that under these circumstances favorable variations would tend to be preserved” ¶16 | Darwin’s own words sound like a Eureka moment, so the notebook evidence that follows lands harder RJJ L6–26. |
| Refutation by absence | proof from something that is missing | “without a single exclamation point, though he habitually used two or three in moments of excitement” ¶17 | Weak alone, strong because of Darwin’s known habits — idiolect RJJ L46–60. |
| Appeal to scholarship | other scholars’ findings as evidence | “Gruber shows that Darwin was continually proposing, testing, and abandoning hypotheses” ¶19 | Gruber, Schweber and the notebooks make the middle road “an independently argued position” RJJ L1349–1360. |
| Metaphor (jigsaw) | Malthus = the last piece of a nearly finished puzzle | “the jigsaw puzzle was only missing a piece or two at the time” ¶19 | Demotes Malthus; useful but imperfect (a real puzzle has a known picture) RJJ L275–393. |
| Analogy across fields | one field explained through a structural similarity with another | “an extended analogy” ¶22 | Individual competition → larger order, in economics and in nature; analogy as “a profound source of insight” RJJ L943–974. |
| Concession → refutation | grant part of the objection, then show why it does not defeat you | “Yet Marx was a great admirer of Darwin” ¶28 | Marx’s letter is conceded, then answered by source ≠ truth and Kautsky RJJ L769–905. |
| Diction ("crib") | a deliberately negative word | “Darwin may have cribbed the idea of natural selection from economics” ¶28 | Even granting the worst wording, the idea may still be right RJJ L852–876. |
| Concession → reframe | accept part of the opposing idea but change how it is understood | “essentially little more than a man in the right place at the right time” ¶29 | Luck is accepted but placed inside a bigger picture: luck + preparation RJJ L1961–2021. |
| Borrowed authority | ending on a respected expert’s words | “fortune favors the prepared mind” ¶29 | Authority, concision, memorability, closure; not a fallacy because Pasteur is relevant RJJ L2048–2096. |
| Poet | Emily Dickinson — lived in Amherst, Massachusetts, in a strongly Christian, Puritan-influenced culture RJJ L4338–4341. |
| Title | Her poems often had no formal titles, so the first line serves as the title RJJ L3335–3344. |
| Form | Eight lines; about 8-6-8-6 syllables; alternating iambic tetrameter and iambic trimeter = common meter / hymn meter (compared with “Amazing Grace” RJJ L3691, L3772); rhyme plus slant rhyme RJJ L4161–4166. |
| Central claim | “Emily Dickinson argues that although the whole truth should ultimately be told, it must often be communicated indirectly and gradually because truth can be too powerful for people to understand or accept all at once.” RJJ L4243–4246 |
| Key structure | Tell all the truth → BUT tell it slant → why? truth is too bright, humans are “infirm” → example: lightning explained to children → therefore truth must “dazzle gradually” → otherwise people become “blind” RJJ L4217–4239. |
| Key devices | Extended metaphor (truth = light) · simile (lightning) · personification · paradox · inversion · enjambment · slant rhyme · alliteration · consonance · assonance · internal rhyme · metonymy · subjunctive RJJ L5310–5331. |
| Where | Function | Key words (verbatim) |
|---|---|---|
| line 1 | The advice: tell the whole truth, but at an angle. Dickinson is not saying “Lie.” — the content (tell the truth) is kept, the method (slant) changes RJJ L3371–3395. | “Tell all the truth but tell it slant” |
| line 2 | “Circuit” = an indirect or roundabout route; inverted word order (“Success lies in Circuit”) makes the syntax itself slightly slant RJJ L3400–3425, L4883–4885. | “Success in Circuit lies” |
| lines 3–4 | The reason: truth is too bright for our weak, fragile capacity for delight; the subject is delayed to line 4 (enjambment → suspense) RJJ L3432–3471. | “Too bright for our infirm Delight” |
| lines 5–6 | The analogy: adults ease children’s fear of lightning with kind explanation RJJ L3525–3559. | “As Lightning to the Children eased” |
| line 7 | The paradox at the center of the poem — power delivered little by little; “probably the poem's most important line” RJJ L3593–3620. | “The Truth must dazzle gradually” |
| line 8 | The consequence: otherwise everyone is metaphorically blinded; “be” sounds hypothetical / subjunctive RJJ L3625–3647. | “Or every man be blind” |
| Device | Definition | Example in this text | Effect |
|---|---|---|---|
| Extended metaphor | a comparison developed across several lines | “Too bright for our infirm Delight” line 3 | Truth = light (bright, lightning, dazzle, blind) organizes the whole poem RJJ L4662–4704. |
| Simile / analogy | an explicit comparison signalled by “As” | “As Lightning to the Children eased” line 5 | Adults explaining lightning to children parallels people explaining difficult truth RJJ L4709–4736. |
| Personification | an abstract idea acts like an agent | “The Truth must dazzle gradually” line 7 | Truth “dazzles” — it acts upon people RJJ L4807–4822. |
| Paradox | two ideas that seem to contradict | “dazzle gradually” line 7 | “dazzle” = sudden, intense; “gradually” = slow → powerful truth revealed little by little RJJ L4760–4802. |
| Inversion | reversed normal word order | “Success in Circuit lies” line 2 | Normal order “Success lies in Circuit”; draws attention to Circuit — the syntax itself becomes slightly slant RJJ L4874–4912. |
| Enjambment | a sentence runs over the line break | “Too bright for our infirm Delight” lines 3–4 | The subject arrives only in line 4 → suspense, tension, anticipation RJJ L5518–5537. |
| Slant rhyme | near / half / imperfect rhyme | — | The poem uses the indirectness it recommends: form mirrors content RJJ L3813–3867. (Class notes do not name the pair.) |
| Alliteration | same beginning consonant in nearby words | “Success in Circuit” line 2 | Smooth /s/ sound link RJJ L4613–4622. |
| Consonance | repeated consonant sounds, not only at the start | “superb surprise” line 4 | Links the words; “not simply ordinary alliteration” RJJ L4557–4570. |
| Assonance | repeated vowel sounds | “Too bright for our infirm Delight” lines 3–6, 8 | Long i in bright / surprise / lightning / kind / blind adds musical unity RJJ L4641–4657. |
| Internal rhyme | rhyme inside a line | “Too bright for our infirm Delight” line 3 | bright / Delight — adds musicality to a compressed poem RJJ L4575–4592. |
| Metonymy | a part / capacity stands for the whole person | “our infirm Delight” line 3 | “Delight” represents human emotional capacity RJJ L4827–4849. |
| Subjunctive | base-form verb for a hypothetical result | “Or every man be blind” line 8 | “Or” = otherwise; “be” sounds hypothetical, compressed, archaic RJJ L4917–4940. |
| Ellipsis | leaving out words the reader can infer | — | Shortness, ambiguity, density, indirect style RJJ L5543–5560. (Class notes do not tie ellipsis to one line.) |
| Hymn (common) meter | alternating iambic tetrameter / trimeter, 8-6-8-6 | “Tell all the truth but tell it slant” lines 1–8 | Familiar, memorable, musical — contrasts with the complex idea; ironic if read as a hymn RJJ L4171–4180. |
| Author | Rachel Carson (1907–1964) — studied biology, MA in zoology, then a full-time nature writer (handout note); the class stressed that she combined science and literature RJJ L5604–5621. |
| Source | Silent Spring (1962), Chapter 1; the opening appeared around the same time in The New Yorker RJJ L5599–5603. Paragraph numbers were added for classroom reference (handout). |
| Genre | A fable — short, fictional, simple, morally instructive — but “for Tomorrow”: it points to the future RJJ L5748–5812. |
| Central claim | “Rachel Carson uses the literary form of a fable, vivid pastoral imagery, and emotionally accessible language to prepare ordinary readers for a scientific environmental warning” RJJ L6651–6654. |
| Key structure | Beautiful fictional town → abundant life and sound → mysterious contamination → animals disappear → silence → “The people had done it themselves.” → the town does not exist, BUT every disaster really happened → the rest of the book explains why RJJ L7798–7821. |
| Key devices | Fairy-tale opening · metaphor · auditory imagery · alliteration · personification · onomatopoeia · repetition of “no” · simile · polysyndeton · sentence-length contrast · first-person shift · pathos / ethos / logos RJJ L7773–7793. |
¶1There was once a town in the heart of America where all life seemed to live in harmony with its surroundings. The town lay in the midst of a checkerboard of prosperous farms, with fields of grain and hillsides of orchards where, in spring, white clouds of bloom drifted above the green fields. In autumn, oak and maple and birch set up a blaze of color that flamed and flickered across a backdrop of pines. Then foxes barked in the hills and deer silently crossed the fields, half hidden in the mists of the fall mornings.
¶2Along the roads laurel, viburnum and alder, great ferns and wildflowers delighted the traveler’s eye through much of the year. Even in winter the roadsides were places of beauty, where countless birds came to feed on the berries and on the seed heads of the dried weeds rising above the snow. The countryside was, in fact, famous for the abundance and variety of its bird life, and when the flood of migrants was pouring through in spring and fall people traveled from great distances to observe them. Others came to fish the streams, which flowed clear and cold out of the hills and contained shady pools where trout lay. So it had been from the days many years ago when the first settlers raised their houses, sank their wells, and built their barns.
¶3Then a strange blight crept over the area and everything began to change. Some evil spell had settled on the community: mysterious maladies swept the flocks of chickens; the cattle and sheep sickened and died. Everywhere was a shadow of death. The farmers spoke of much illness among their families. In the town the doctors had become more and more puzzled by new kinds of sickness appearing among their patients. There had been several sudden and unexplained deaths, not only among adults but even among children, who would be stricken suddenly while at play and die within a few hours.
¶4There was a strange stillness. The birds, for example—where had they gone? Many people spoke of them, puzzled and disturbed. The feeding stations in the backyards were deserted. The few birds seen anywhere were moribund; they trembled violently and could not fly. It was a spring without voices. On the mornings that had once throbbed with the dawn chorus of robins, catbirds, doves, jays, wrens and scores of other bird voices there were now no sound; only silence lay over the fields and woods and marsh.
¶5On the farms the hens brooded, but no chicks hatched. The farmers complained that they were unable to raise any pigs—the litters were small and the young survived only a few days. The apple trees were coming into bloom but no bees droned among the blossoms, so there was no pollination and there would be no fruit.
¶6The roadsides, once so attractive, were now lined with brown and withered vegetation as though swept by fire. These, too, were silent, deserted by all living things. Even the streams were now lifeless. Anglers no longer visited them, for all the fish had died.
¶7In the gutters under the eaves and between the shingles of the roofs, a white granular powder still showed a few patches: some weeks before it had fallen like snow upon the roofs and the lawns, the fields and the streams.
¶8No witchcraft, no enemy action had silenced the rebirth of new life in this stricken world. The people had done it themselves.
¶9. . . This town does not actually exist, but it might easily have a thousand counterparts in America or elsewhere in the world. I know of no community that has experienced all the misfortunes I describe. Yet every one of these disasters has actually happened somewhere, and many real communities have already suffered a substantial number of them. A grim specter has crept upon us almost unnoticed, and this imagined tragedy may easily become a stark reality we all shall know.
| Where | Function | Key words (verbatim) |
|---|---|---|
| Title | A fable (moral lesson) “for Tomorrow” — fiction now, possible reality later; almost paradoxical RJJ L5748–5812. | — |
| ¶1 | “There was once…” = “Once upon a time…” (accessible) + “in the heart of America” (real and close); a pastoral, prosperous, seasonal landscape RJJ L5834–6150. | “There was once a town in the heart of America” |
| ¶2 | Two paragraphs of concrete detail — plants, birds, streams, people — establish abundance, variety and harmony so that their loss will hurt RJJ L6192–6317. | “famous for the abundance and variety of its bird life” |
| ¶3 | The turn: blight, an “evil spell,” sickness and sudden deaths, even among children. | “Then a strange blight crept over the area and everything began to change.” |
| ¶4 | Silence: the birds are gone; once-peaceful silence becomes the silence of absent life RJJ L7321–7356. | “It was a spring without voices.” |
| ¶5 | A chain of “no”: no chicks, no bees, no pollination, no fruit — the future fails to arrive RJJ L7466–7502. | “so there was no pollination and there would be no fruit” |
| ¶6 | Vegetation “as though swept by fire”; even the streams are lifeless RJJ L7531–7542. | “as though swept by fire” |
| ¶7 | The only physical cause: a white granular powder that fell “like snow” — but snow would not remain weeks later RJJ L6663–6685. | “a white granular powder still showed a few patches” |
| ¶8 | No witchcraft, no enemy: a short, blunt sentence assigns responsibility to people RJJ L6737–6796. | “No witchcraft, no enemy action had silenced the rebirth of new life in this stricken world.” |
| ¶9 | The reversal: the town is invented, but every disaster happened somewhere; Carson steps in as “I”; the “grim specter” RJJ L6827–7153. | “I know of no community that has experienced all the misfortunes I describe.” |
| Device | Definition | Example in this text | Effect |
|---|---|---|---|
| Fairy-tale opening | a story formula that signals fiction | “There was once a town” ¶1 | Accessible and familiar; combined with “in the heart of America” to feel real RJJ L5834–5970. |
| Metaphor | implied comparison | “a checkerboard of prosperous farms” ¶1 | Fields seen from above as squares — easy to visualize RJJ L7201–7213. Also “white clouds of bloom,” “a blaze of color,” “the flood of migrants” RJJ L7218–7263. |
| Theatrical word | landscape presented as a stage | “a backdrop of pines” ¶1 | “backdrop” turns nature into a composed scene RJJ L7268–7281. |
| Auditory imagery | language that makes readers hear | “Then foxes barked in the hills” ¶1 | The town is heard as well as seen RJJ L7286–7316. |
| Alliteration | repeated initial consonants | “flamed and flickered” ¶1 | Rhythm, musicality, memorability; also “clear and cold,” “built their barns,” “strange stillness” RJJ L7361–7389. |
| Personification | non-human things act like living beings | “Then a strange blight crept over the area” ¶3 | Also “Some evil spell had settled,” “maladies swept,” mornings that “throbbed” — destruction feels active RJJ L7394–7415. |
| Personification + auditory imagery | one phrase, several layers | “It was a spring without voices.” ¶4 | Absence of sound; connects to the title Silent Spring RJJ L7420–7438. |
| Onomatopoeia | a word that imitates a sound | “no bees droned among the blossoms” ¶5 | “drone” suggests the low buzzing itself RJJ L7443–7461. |
| Repetition of "no" | a rhythm of disappearance | “no chicks hatched” ¶5 | Each “no” removes a piece of life → cumulative loss, a chain reaction RJJ L7466–7502. |
| Simile | explicit comparison with like or as though | “it had fallen like snow” ¶7 | A harmless natural image turned sinister RJJ L7507–7526; also “as though swept by fire” (¶6) RJJ L7531–7542. |
| Polysyndeton | deliberate repetition of conjunctions | “upon the roofs and the lawns, the fields and the streams” ¶7 | Contamination feels widespread and unavoidable RJJ L6690–6732. |
| Sentence-length contrast | long description → short sentence | “The people had done it themselves.” ¶8 | “a punch” — direct assignment of responsibility RJJ L6745–6796. |
| First-person shift | the author enters the text | “I know of no community that has experienced all the misfortunes I describe.” ¶9 | From storyteller to scientist-author; prepares the direct argument of later chapters RJJ L6977–7007. |
| Metaphor + personification | a ghost that creeps | “A grim specter has crept upon us almost unnoticed” ¶9 | The future danger feels alive and approaching RJJ L7100–7153. |
| Dead metaphor | once figurative, now ordinary | “in the heart of America” ¶1 | Do not label every conventional phrase an active metaphor RJJ L7839–7880. |
| Source | Silent Spring (1962), Chapter 2 — “Abridged for close reading”; paragraph numbers follow the full chapter, gray sections are summaries (handout). |
| Voice | Chapter 1 used fable and imagery; Chapter 2 becomes “more analytical,” “more argumentative,” “more scientific,” “more direct” RJJ L7929–7955. |
| Central claim | “the greatest danger of modern chemical technology is not simply that chemicals are toxic, but that humans introduce powerful, biologically unfamiliar substances at a speed far faster than natural systems can adapt” RJJ L9015–9019; and the public, who bears the risk, “must ultimately possess the facts and decide” RJJ L10441–10445. |
| Key structure | Handout sections: I. The Premise (time) → II. The Problem (biocides, endless spiral) → III. The Refutation (“For What?”) → IV. The Demand (the right to know). |
| Key devices | Diction with moral weight · radiation comparison · chain-like syntax · war metaphor · rhetorical question · renaming (insecticide → biocide) · appeal to authority (Darwin, Schweitzer) · sarcasm / irony · counterargument → reframing · concession · metaphor (tranquilizing pills, sugar coating) · Bill of Rights · ending on another’s words RJJ L9790–9812. |
¶1THE HISTORY OF LIFE on earth has been a history of interaction between living things and their surroundings. To a large extent, the physical form and the habits of the earth’s vegetation and its animal life have been molded by the environment. Considering the whole span of earthly time, the opposite effect, in which life actually modifies its surroundings, has been relatively slight. Only within the moment of time represented by the present century has one species—man—acquired significant power to alter the nature of his world.
¶2During the past quarter century this power has not only increased to one of disturbing magnitude but it has changed in character. The most alarming of all man’s assaults upon the environment is the contamination of air, earth, rivers, and sea with dangerous and even lethal materials. This pollution is for the most part irrecoverable; the chain of evil it initiates not only in the world that must support life but in living tissues is for the most part irreversible. In this now universal contamination of the environment, chemicals are the sinister and little-recognized partners of radiation in changing the very nature of the world—the very nature of its life. Strontium 90, released through nuclear explosions into the air, comes to earth in rain or drifts down as fallout, lodges in soil, enters into the grass or corn or wheat grown there, and in time takes up its abode in the bones of a human being, there to remain until his death. Similarly, chemicals sprayed on croplands or forests or gardens lie long in soil, entering into living organisms, passing from one to another in a chain of poisoning and death. Or they pass mysteriously by underground streams until they emerge and, through the alchemy of air and sunlight, combine into new forms that kill vegetation, sicken cattle, and work unknown harm on those who drink from once pure wells. As Albert Schweitzer has said, “Man can hardly even recognize the devils of his own creation.”
¶3It took hundreds of millions of years to produce the life that now inhabits the earth—eons of time in which that developing and evolving and diversifying life reached a state of adjustment and balance with its surroundings. The environment, rigorously shaping and directing the life it supported, contained elements that were hostile as well as supporting. Certain rocks gave out dangerous radiation; even within the light of the sun, from which all life draws its energy, there were short-wave radiations with power to injure. Given time—time not in years but in millennia—life adjusts, and a balance has been reached. For time is the essential ingredient; but in the modern world there is no time.
¶4The rapidity of change and the speed with which new situations are created follow the impetuous and heedless pace of man rather than the deliberate pace of nature. Radiation is no longer merely the background radiation of rocks, the bombardment of cosmic rays, the ultraviolet of the sun that have existed before there was any life on earth; radiation is now the unnatural creation of man’s tampering with the atom. The chemicals to which life is asked to make its adjustment are no longer merely the calcium and silica and copper and all the rest of the minerals washed out of the rocks and carried in rivers to the sea; they are the synthetic creations of man’s inventive mind, brewed in his laboratories, and having no counterparts in nature.
¶5To adjust to these chemicals would require time on the scale that is nature’s; it would require not merely the years of a man’s life but the life of generations. And even this, were it by some miracle possible, would be futile, for the new chemicals come from our laboratories in an endless stream; almost five hundred annually find their way into actual use in the United States alone. The figure is staggering and its implications are not easily grasped—500 new chemicals to which the bodies of men and animals are required somehow to adapt each year, chemicals totally outside the limits of biologic experience.
¶7These sprays, dusts, and aerosols are now applied almost universally to farms, gardens, forests, and homes—nonselective chemicals that have the power to kill every insect, the “good” and the “bad,” to still the song of birds and the leaping of fish in the streams, to coat the leaves with a deadly film, and to linger on in soil—all this though the intended target may be only a few weeds or insects. Can anyone believe it is possible to lay down such a barrage of poisons on the surface of the earth without making it unfit for all life? They should not be called “insecticides,” but “biocides.”
¶8The whole process of spraying seems caught up in an endless spiral. Since DDT was released for civilian use, a process of escalation has been going on in which ever more toxic materials must be found. This has happened because insects, in a triumphant vindication of Darwin’s principle of the survival of the fittest, have evolved super races immune to the particular insecticide used, hence a deadlier one has always to be developed—and then a deadlier one than that. It has happened also because, for reasons to be described later, destructive insects often undergo a “flareback,” or resurgence, after spraying, in numbers greater than before. Thus the chemical war is never won, and all life is caught in its violent crossfire.
¶11All this has been risked—for what? Future historians may well be amazed by our distorted sense of proportion. How could intelligent beings seek to control a few unwanted species by a method that contaminated the entire environment and brought the threat of disease and death even to their own kind? Yet this is precisely what we have done. We have done it, moreover, for reasons that collapse the moment we examine them. We are told that the enormous and expanding use of pesticides is necessary to maintain farm production. Yet is our real problem not one of overproduction? Our farms, despite measures to remove acreages from production and to pay farmers not to produce, have yielded such a staggering excess of crops that the American taxpayer in 1962 is paying out more than one billion dollars a year as the total carrying cost of the surplus-food storage program. And is the situation helped when one branch of the Agriculture Department tries to reduce production while another states, as it did in 1958, “It is believed generally that reduction of crop acreages under provisions of the Soil Bank will stimulate interest in use of chemicals to obtain maximum production on the land retained in crops”?
¶12All this is not to say there is no insect problem and no need of control. I am saying, rather, that control must be geared to realities, not to mythical situations, and that the methods employed must be such that they do not destroy us along with the insects.
¶22Have we fallen into a mesmerized state that makes us accept as inevitable that which is inferior or detrimental, as though having lost the will or the vision to demand that which is good? Such thinking, in the words of the ecologist Paul Shepard, “idealizes life with only its head out of water, inches above the limits of toleration of the corruption of its own environment.... Why should we tolerate a diet of weak poisons, a home in insipid surroundings, a circle of acquaintances who are not quite our enemies, the noise of motors with just enough relief to prevent insanity? Who would want to live in a world which is just not quite fatal?”
¶23Yet such a world is pressed upon us. The crusade to create a chemically sterile, insect-free world seems to have engendered a fanatic zeal on the part of many specialists and most of the so-called control agencies. On every hand there is evidence that those engaged in spraying operations exercise a ruthless power. “The regulatory entomologists.... function as prosecutor, judge and jury, tax assessor and collector and sheriff to enforce their own orders,” said Connecticut entomologist Neely Turner. The most flagrant abuses go unchecked in both state and federal agencies.
¶24It is not my contention that chemical insecticides must never be used. I do contend that we have put poisonous and biologically potent chemicals indiscriminately into the hands of persons largely or wholly ignorant of their potentials for harm. We have subjected enormous numbers of people to contact with these poisons, without their consent and often without their knowledge. If the Bill of Rights contains no guarantee that a citizen shall be secure against lethal poisons distributed either by private individuals or by public officials, it is surely only because our forefathers, despite their considerable wisdom and foresight, could conceive of no such problem.
¶25I contend, furthermore, that we have allowed these chemicals to be used with little or no advance investigation of their effect on soil, water, wildlife, and man himself. Future generations are unlikely to condone our lack of prudent concern for the integrity of the natural world that supports all life.
¶26There is still very limited awareness of the nature of the threat. This is an era of specialists, each of whom sees his own problem and is unaware of or intolerant of the larger frame into which it fits. It is also an era dominated by industry, in which the right to make a dollar at whatever cost is seldom challenged. When the public protests, confronted with some obvious evidence of damaging results of pesticide applications, it is fed little tranquilizing pills of half truth. We urgently need an end to these false assurances, to the sugar coating of unpalatable facts. It is the public that is being asked to assume the risks that the insect controllers calculate. The public must decide whether it wishes to continue on the present road, and it can do so only when in full possession of the facts. In the words of Jean Rostand, “The obligation to endure gives us the right to know.”
| Where | Function | Key words (verbatim) |
|---|---|---|
| ¶1 | Starts with the whole history of life, then narrows to the present century and one species — man RJJ L8209–8255. | “one species—man—acquired significant power to alter the nature of his world” |
| ¶2 | Contamination reaches living tissue; chemicals are the partners of radiation; a chain sentence (Strontium 90); Schweitzer RJJ L8260–8536. | “the sinister and little-recognized partners of radiation” |
| ¶3 | The premise: given time, life adjusts — but there is no time now RJJ L7987–8072. | “For time is the essential ingredient” |
| ¶4 | Human pace vs. nature’s pace; natural vs. synthetic chemicals RJJ L8077–8125, L8301–8345. | “follow the impetuous and heedless pace of man rather than the deliberate pace of nature” |
| ¶5 | Adaptation would take generations; 500 new chemicals a year, “outside the limits of biologic experience” RJJ L8350–8385. | “almost five hundred annually find their way into actual use in the United States alone” |
| [¶6] | Gray summary in the handout — not Carson’s text. | — |
| ¶7 | Nonselective sprays kill far beyond the target; a rhetorical question; the renaming saved for the end RJJ L8564–8700. | “Can anyone believe it is possible to lay down such a barrage of poisons” |
| ¶8 | The endless spiral: resistance (Darwin) → deadlier chemicals → crossfire RJJ L8705–8827. | “The whole process of spraying seems caught up in an endless spiral.” |
| [¶9–10] | Gray summary in the handout; in class: heredity, “architects of our future,” “inadvertence,” sarcasm RJJ L9164–9333. | — |
| ¶11 | “for what?” — future historians; the opponent’s argument (“We are told…”) turned by two facts; reframing to overproduction RJJ L9334–9634. | “Yet is our real problem not one of overproduction?” |
| ¶12 | Concession + refinement: there is an insect problem, but control must fit reality RJJ L9639–9678. | “All this is not to say there is no insect problem and no need of control.” |
| [¶13–23] | Gray summary in the handout (causes; ecologists ignored; “a world which is just not quite fatal”). | — |
| ¶22 | Rhetorical questions and Paul Shepard’s words: are we accepting the inferior and detrimental? (Not discussed in class notes.) | “Who would want to live in a world which is just not quite fatal?” |
| ¶23 | “so-called control agencies” exercise “a ruthless power” RJJ L10228–10245. | “most of the so-called control agencies” |
| ¶24 | Final contention: not a ban on all use, but no indiscriminate use, no exposure without consent; the Bill of Rights RJJ L9988–10094. | “without their consent and often without their knowledge” |
| ¶25 | Little or no advance investigation; future generations will not condone it RJJ L10099–10136. | “with little or no advance investigation of their effect on soil, water, wildlife, and man himself” |
| ¶26 | Era of specialists and industry; “half truth”; the public must decide with full facts; ends with Rostand RJJ L10141–10401. | “it can do so only when in full possession of the facts” |
| Device | Definition | Example in this text | Effect |
|---|---|---|---|
| Diction (moral weight) | word choice that judges | “the impetuous and heedless pace of man” ¶4 | Humans = reckless, nature = careful — “a strong evaluative contrast” RJJ L8077–8125. |
| Comparison to radiation | a known fear applied to a new danger | “the sinister and little-recognized partners of radiation” ¶2 | Readers already feared radiation as invisible, persistent, dangerous RJJ L8277–8295. |
| Chain-like syntax | clauses linked like the process they describe | “lodges in soil, enters into the grass or corn or wheat grown there” ¶2 | Sentence structure imitates poison moving through an ecosystem RJJ L8411–8454. |
| Appeal to authority | a respected thinker’s words | “Man can hardly even recognize the devils of his own creation.” ¶2 | Schweitzer — similar to Gould’s outside authority RJJ L8523–8536. |
| Rhetorical question | a question that expects an obvious answer | “Can anyone believe it is possible to lay down such a barrage of poisons on the surface of the earth without making it unfit for all life?” ¶7 | Pushes readers toward her conclusion RJJ L8609–8622. |
| Renaming | a new name that reframes the thing | “They should not be called “insecticides,” but “biocides.”” ¶7 | Intention → consequence; placed last for a concluding effect RJJ L8627–8700. |
| War metaphor | pest control as warfare | “Thus the chemical war is never won, and all life is caught in its violent crossfire.” ¶8 | Weapons, battlefield, casualties, escalation, endless war RJJ L8782–8827. |
| Appeal to scientific authority | an established theory as support | “a triumphant vindication of Darwin's principle of the survival of the fittest” ¶8 | Resistance becomes predictable; logos + ethos RJJ L8741–8781. |
| Counterargument | stating the opposing claim | “We are told that the enormous and expanding use of pesticides is necessary to maintain farm production.” ¶11 | Presented as accepted wisdom, then dismantled RJJ L9615–9634. |
| Reframing | changing how the issue is defined | “Yet is our real problem not one of overproduction?” ¶11 | From “How can we produce more food?” to “Is overproduction actually the real problem?” RJJ L9553–9586. |
| Metaphor ("collapse") | an argument that falls apart | “for reasons that collapse the moment we examine them” ¶11 | The reason “cannot stand after close examination” RJJ L9591–9610. |
| Concession | granting part of the other side | “It is not my contention that chemical insecticides must never be used.” ¶24 | Avoids sounding extreme; repeated from ¶12 RJJ L9988–10008. |
| Allusion (Bill of Rights) | reference to a founding document | “If the Bill of Rights contains no guarantee that a citizen shall be secure against lethal poisons” ¶24 | Turns an environmental issue into rights and consent RJJ L10055–10094. |
| Metaphor | half-truths as sedatives | “it is fed little tranquilizing pills of half truth” ¶26 | The public is made passive and reassured RJJ L10297–10316. |
| Metaphor | making bitter truth sweet | “the sugar coating of unpalatable facts” ¶26 | Carson wants full facts, not comfortable distortion RJJ L10321–10334. |
| Ending on another’s words | final authority | “The obligation to endure gives us the right to know.” ¶26 | Ethos, moral authority, intellectual legitimacy RJJ L10380–10401. |
| Author | Katherine Mansfield — from New Zealand, a modernist writer influenced by James Joyce and Virginia Woolf RJJ L10468–10473. |
| Genre | Modernist short story — fiction, psychologically focused, “subtle rather than argumentative” RJJ L10452–10463. Handout line: “A lonely woman enjoys her Sunday afternoon outings to the park until her encounter with a thoughtless young couple.” |
| Setting | The Jardins Publics (a French name → probably France, but read through textual clues); Sunday afternoon; early autumn; “the Season” = the social / entertainment season RJJ L10556–10625. |
| Central claim | Mansfield reveals “the gap between Miss Brill's imagined social belonging and her actual isolation”; the couple's rejection collapses the illusion and forces “a painful, though still incomplete, recognition of herself” RJJ L12543–12553. |
| Key structure | Lonely but does not admit it → projects onto the fur → watches lonely people without recognizing herself → ermine woman mirrors her → park becomes a “play” → “she too, she too” → young couple rejects her → skips her pleasure → room “like a cupboard” → fur back in the box → “something” cries RJJ L12558–12595. |
| Key devices | Free indirect style · personification + projection · symbolism (fur) · mirror character · dramatic irony · foreshadowing · theater metaphor · repetition · tactile imagery · structural echo · indirect characterization RJJ L12279–12305. |
| Where | Function | Key words (verbatim) |
|---|---|---|
| L.1–19 | Sunday, early autumn; she takes out the old fur and treats it as alive — personification and projection; she corrects “sad” to “gentle” RJJ L10586–10785. | “Miss Brill was glad that she had decided on her fur” |
| L.20–30 | The Season has begun; the band; free indirect style (“Wasn't the conductor wearing a new coat, too?”) RJJ L10605–10625, L10831–10853. | “Wasn't the conductor wearing a new coat, too?” |
| L.31–46 | Her “special” seat; eavesdropping as a skill; last Sunday’s English couple RJJ L10895–10919. | “at listening as though she didn't listen, at sitting in other people's lives just for a minute” |
| L.47–64 | The crowd; the odd, silent, old people on the benches — as if from cupboards (she does not see herself) RJJ L11192–11224. | “they looked as though they'd just come from dark little rooms or even—even cupboards!” |
| L.65–94 | Passers-by; the ermine toque is rejected — a mirror character; the drum says “The Brute! The Brute!” RJJ L11229–11333. | “was the same colour as the shabby ermine” |
| L.95–117 | The theater epiphany; “somebody would have noticed”; “I have been an actress for a long time” RJJ L11338–11476. | “It was like a play. It was exactly like a play.” |
| L.118–130 | The faint chill returns; “not sadness”; “she too, she too”; “we understand” RJJ L11481–11672. | “yet there was just a faint chill” |
| L.131–144 | At the peak of her fantasy the “hero and heroine” arrive and reject her and her fur RJJ L11700–11902. | “Because of that stupid old thing at the end there?” |
| L.145–150 | Her usual Sunday ritual — honey-cake, the almond as “a tiny present” RJJ L11964–11980. | “On her way home she usually bought a slice of honey-cake” |
| L.151–156 | Today she skips it; the room “like a cupboard”; the fur back in the box; “something crying” RJJ L11924–12140. | “But to-day she passed the baker's by” |
| Device | Definition | Example in this text | Effect |
|---|---|---|---|
| Free indirect style | third-person narration blended with a character’s thoughts | “Wasn't the conductor wearing a new coat, too?” L.25 | Ambiguity between objective reality and Miss Brill’s perception RJJ L10831–10872. |
| Personification | human qualities given to a non-human thing | “said the sad little eyes” L.10 | The fur becomes a companion RJJ L10682–10695. |
| Projection | putting one’s own feelings onto another person / object | “What has been happening to me?” L.9–10 | The fur’s question is really her own RJJ L10696–10715. |
| Repetition (denial) | the same corrective pattern twice | “something light and sad—no, not sad, exactly—something gentle” L.18–19 | Echoed by “not sadness—no, not sadness” (L.120): persistent denial RJJ L11481–11507. |
| Mirror character | a secondary character who reflects the protagonist | “her hand, in its cleaned glove, lifted to dab her lips, was a tiny yellowish paw” L.77–78 | The ermine woman’s rejection foreshadows Miss Brill’s RJJ L11258–11308. |
| Subjective sound | outer sound filtered through a mind | “the drum beat, “The Brute! The Brute!” over and over” L.87 | The music as an emotional soundtrack RJJ L11309–11333. |
| Theater metaphor | the park as a stage | “They were all on the stage.” L.100 | Passive observation becomes imagined membership RJJ L12215–12231. |
| Double meaning / irony | one line, two readings | “Yes, I have been an actress for a long time.” L.117 | Fantasy role vs. a lifetime of performing happiness RJJ L11441–11476. |
| Tactile imagery | touch / temperature words used for emotion | “yet there was just a faint chill” L.119 | Physical chill → loneliness beneath warmth RJJ L11512–11561. |
| Repetition (inclusion) | a doubled phrase | “And then she too, she too” L.125 | Her desperate need to belong RJJ L11566–11587. |
| Dramatic irony | the reader knows what the character does not | “though what they understood she didn't know” L.130 | Her imagined communion vs. the reader’s understanding of her loneliness RJJ L11648–11672. |
| Symbol | an object that stands for a person | “It's exactly like a fried whiting.” L.140–141 | The insult to the fur is an insult to her RJJ L11882–11902. |
| Indirect characterization | feelings shown through actions | “But to-day she passed the baker's by” L.151 | Ending behavior reveals pain without naming it RJJ L11907–11958. |
| Structural echo | an earlier image returns | “her room like a cupboard” L.152 | Echoes “even cupboards!” (L.61): she is one of the bench people RJJ L11985–12026. |
| Projection (ending) | grief heard as coming from the fur | “she thought she heard something crying” L.155–156 | Continues personification, projection and denial to the last sentence RJJ L12054–12102. |
| Word | POS | 뜻 | Synonyms | Antonyms | Example |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| adulterateuh·DUL·tuh·rayt | (v.) | 불순물을 섞어 질을 떨어뜨리다, 타락시키다 | contaminate, pollute, sully | purify, purge, expurgate | Hospitals take strict precautions to assure that nothing adulterates the blood supply.병원은 무엇도 혈액 공급을 오염시키지 못하도록 엄격한 예방 조치를 취한다. |
| ambidextrousam·bi·DEK·struhs | (adj.) | 양손을 다 잘 쓰는; 매우 능숙한; 이중적인, 위선적인 | versatile, flexible | clumsy, all thumbs | Occasionally a teacher will come across a child who displays ambidextrous abilities when taught to write.가끔 교사는 글쓰기를 배울 때 양손을 다 잘 쓰는 능력을 보이는 아이를 만나게 된다. |
| augmentawg·MENT | (v.) | 더 크게 만들다, 증가시키다 | supplement, amplify | decrease, diminish | Many couples have to augment their income in order to pay the mortgage on a new home.많은 부부는 새 집의 대출금을 갚기 위해 소득을 늘려야 한다. |
| bereftbi·REFT | (adj.) | 빼앗긴, 잃은; 상실로 인해 불행해진 | bereaved | replete, well provided | Individuals who live to be very old may eventually find themselves completely bereft of friends and family.아주 오래 사는 사람은 결국 친구와 가족을 완전히 잃은 채로 남을 수도 있다. |
| deploydi·PLOY | (v.) | 배치하다; 활용하다; 편성하다 | station, organize | — | A bugle call is a signal used to deploy troops for inspection, parade, or battle.나팔 신호는 검열, 행진, 전투를 위해 병력을 배치하는 데 쓰이는 신호다. |
| dourDOOR | (adj.) | 엄격한, 완고한, 음울한, 무뚝뚝한 | harsh, bleak, forbidding, saturnine | cheery, inviting, genial | Dickens's Mr. Gradgrind in the novel Hard Times is an example of a character with a dour and sullen disposition.디킨스의 소설 《어려운 시절》 속 그래드그라인드 씨는 엄격하고 시무룩한 성격의 인물이다. |
| fortitudeFOR·ti·tood | (n.) | 역경에 맞서는 용기, 불굴의 정신 | resolve, steadfastness, mettle | fearfulness, faintheartedness | The residents of the Mississippi delta showed remarkable fortitude during and after the flood that destroyed their homes and businesses.미시시피 삼각주 주민들은 집과 사업체를 앗아간 홍수 이후에도 놀라운 불굴의 용기를 보였다. |
| gapeGAYP | (v.) | 입을 벌리고 쳐다보다; 입을 크게 벌리다; 크게 벌어지다 | ogle | — | First-time visitors to Niagara Falls can be expected to gape at the spectacular sights nature has provided for them.나이아가라 폭포를 처음 찾는 사람들은 자연이 선사하는 장관을 입을 벌리고 바라보게 된다. |
| gibeJAHYB | (v.) / (n.) | 조롱하는 말을 하다; 조롱, 비웃음 | (v.) ridicule, mock, deride, jeer | (n.) compliment, praise | The recruits rushed into battle so that no one could gibe at them for cowardice.신병들은 비겁하다는 조롱을 듣지 않으려고 전투에 뛰어들었다. |
| guiseGAHYZ | (n.) | 겉모습, 외양, 가면 | costume, semblance, pretense | — | The thieves gained entry to the home by presenting themselves in the guise of police officers.도둑들은 경찰관 행세를 하여 그 집에 들어갔다. |
| insidiousin·SID·ee·uhs | (adj.) | 속이거나 함정에 빠뜨리려는; 교활한, 음흉한 | cunning, dastardly, perfidious | frank, ingenuous, aboveboard | The investigators uncovered an insidious scheme to rob people of their life savings.수사관들은 사람들의 평생 저축을 빼앗으려는 교활한 계략을 밝혀냈다. |
| intimationin·tuh·MAY·shuhn | (n.) | 암시, 넌지시 주는 힌트 | clue, inkling | — | They were too proud to give any intimation of their financial difficulties.그들은 자존심이 강해서 재정적 어려움을 조금도 내비치지 않았다. |
| opulentOP·yuh·luhnt | (adj.) | 부유한, 호화로운; 풍부한; 화려한 | rich, plentiful, abundant | poverty-stricken, wretched, destitute | The tour guide showed us the opulent living quarters of the royal family.관광 가이드는 우리에게 왕실의 호화로운 거처를 보여주었다. |
| pliablePLAHY·uh·buhl | (adj.) | 쉽게 휘는, 유연한; 쉽게 영향받는 | adaptable, resilient | inflexible, recalcitrant | Spools of pliable copper wire are standard equipment for many kinds of maintenance workers, including electricians.유연한 구리선 타래는 전기공을 비롯한 많은 정비공의 필수 장비다. |
| reiterateree·IT·uh·rayt | (v.) | 다시 말하다, 반복하다 | restate, recapitulate | — | Effective speakers often reiterate an important statement for emphasis.유능한 연사는 강조를 위해 중요한 문장을 다시 말하곤 한다. |
| stolidSTOL·id | (adj.) | 쉽사리 동요하지 않는; 둔감한, 무반응의 | impassive, phlegmatic | emotional, oversensitive | Stolid people can generally be expected to take most things in stride.무덤덤한 사람들은 대개 웬만한 일은 태연히 받아들일 것으로 기대된다. |
| tentativeTEN·tuh·tiv | (adj.) | 실험적인, 잠정적인; 불확실한, 주저하는 | provisional, inconclusive | conclusive, confirmed | Negotiators have come up with a tentative agreement that will keep both sides at the bargaining table past the strike deadline.협상가들은 파업 시한 전까지 양측을 협상 테이블에 붙잡아 둘 잠정 합의안을 내놓았다. |
| unkemptuhn·KEMPT | (adj.) | 빗지 않은, 단정치 못한; 제대로 관리되지 않은; 세련되지 못한, 무례한 | sloppy, disordered, rough | well-groomed, tidy | According to my parents, the latest fashions make me and my friends look unkempt.부모님 말씀으로는 요즘 유행이 나와 내 친구들을 단정치 못해 보이게 만든다고 한다. |
| verbatimver·BAY·tim | (adj.) / (adv.) | 말 그대로의, 축어적인; 그대로, 정확하게 | (adj.) exact; (adv.) precisely | (adj.) paraphrased | Newspapers often publish the verbatim text of an important political speech.신문은 흔히 중요한 정치 연설의 원문 그대로 된 기사를 싣는다. |
| warilyWAIR·uh·lee | (adv.) | 조심스럽게, 신중하게 | prudently, gingerly | recklessly, heedlessly, incautiously | The hikers made their way warily up the steep and rocky trail.등산객들은 가파르고 바위투성이인 길을 조심스럽게 올라갔다. |
| Word | POS | 뜻 | Synonyms | Antonyms | Example |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| adroituh·DROYT | (adj.) | 능숙한, 손재주나 재치가 뛰어난 | clever, deft, slick, dexterous | clumsy, inept, all thumbs | Many rodeo performers are adroit at twirling a rope while on horseback.많은 로데오 곡예사들은 말을 탄 채 밧줄을 돌리는 데 능숙하다. |
| amicableAM·uh·kuh·buhl | (adj.) | 평화로운, 우호적인 | congenial, neighborly, cordial | hostile, antagonistic | Sometimes mediation by a neutral individual can lead to an amicable settlement of a dispute.중립적인 사람의 중재는 종종 분쟁의 우호적인 해결로 이어질 수 있다. |
| averseuh·VURS | (adj.) | 깊이 꺼리는, 싫어하는; 반대하는, 마지못한 | disinclined, loath | favorably disposed, eager, keen | You are not likely to become a marathon runner if you are averse to strenuous exercise.격렬한 운동을 꺼린다면 마라톤 선수가 되기는 어려울 것이다. |
| belligerentbuh·LIJ·uh·ruhnt | (adj.) / (n.) | 싸우기 좋아하는, 호전적인; 공격적인; 교전국, 교전 당사자 | (adj.) assertive, truculent, pugnacious | (adj.) peaceful, conciliatory, placid | I did not expect such a belligerent answer to my request for directions.나는 길을 물었을 뿐인데 그렇게 호전적인 대답이 돌아올 줄은 몰랐다. |
| benevolentbuh·NEV·uh·luhnt | (adj.) | 인자한, 자비로운 | benign, well-meaning | malicious, spiteful | The newcomers had nothing but benevolent feelings toward all their neighbors.새로 온 이웃들은 모든 이웃에게 오직 자비로운 감정만 품고 있었다. |
| cursoryKUR·suh·ree | (adj.) | 서두른, 대충하는 | quick, superficial, perfunctory | thorough, painstaking, careful | The mayor gave a final cursory glance at the text of her speech before mounting the podium.시장은 연단에 오르기 전 연설문을 마지막으로 한 번 대충 훑어보았다. |
| duplicitydoo·PLIS·uh·tee | (n.) | 배신, 기만 | double-dealing, chicanery | — | We found it difficult to believe that our good friend could be capable of such duplicity.우리는 좋은 친구가 그런 배신을 저지를 수 있다는 것을 믿기 어려웠다. |
| extolek·STOHL | (v.) | 극구 칭찬하다 | glorify, applaud, acclaim, hail | criticize, belittle, disparage | Many inspiring stories and plays have been written that extol the heroic deeds of Joan of Arc.잔 다르크의 영웅적 행적을 극찬하는 감동적인 이야기와 희곡이 많이 쓰였다. |
| feasibleFEE·zuh·buhl | (adj.) | 가능한, 실행할 수 있는 | workable, viable | unworkable, impractical | Our city needs to develop a feasible plan of action for dealing with storms and other emergencies.우리 도시는 폭풍과 기타 비상사태에 대응할 실행 가능한 계획을 세워야 한다. |
| grimaceGRIM·uhs | (n.) / (v.) | 찡그린 얼굴, 얼굴을 찡그리다 | (n.) pained expression, facial contortion | (n.) grin; (v.) beam | The grimace of the refugee in the photograph reveals the pain of homelessness.사진 속 난민의 찡그린 얼굴은 노숙 생활의 고통을 보여준다. |
| holocaustHAHL·uh·kawst | (n.) | 대규모 파괴(특히 화재로 인한), 대학살; 번제 | conflagration, devastation, annihilation | deluge | Journalists at the time were eager to interview survivors of the Chicago holocaust.당시 기자들은 시카고 대화재의 생존자들을 인터뷰하고 싶어 했다. |
| imperviousim·PUR·vee·uhs | (adj.) | 영향받지 않는, 해를 입지 않는; 통과시키지 않는 | impenetrable, resistant, proof against | porous, permeable, vulnerable | It is best to store flour in a container with a plastic cover that is impervious to moisture.밀가루는 습기에 영향받지 않는 플라스틱 뚜껑이 달린 용기에 보관하는 것이 가장 좋다. |
| impetusIM·puh·tuhs | (n.) | 추진력, 자극, 원동력 | impulse, spur | curb, hindrance, impediment, constraint | The coming of winter gave a new impetus to the appeals for food and clothing for needy families.겨울이 다가오자 어려운 가정을 위한 식량과 의류 지원 호소에 새로운 추진력이 생겼다. |
| jeopardyJEP·er·dee | (n.) | 위험 | risk, hazard, peril | safety, security | Experienced mountaineers know that a single mistake can put an entire expedition in serious jeopardy.노련한 등반가들은 단 한 번의 실수가 원정대 전체를 심각한 위험에 빠뜨릴 수 있음을 안다. |
| meticulousmuh·TIK·yuh·luhs | (adj.) | 매우 세심한, 꼼꼼한 | fastidious, fussy | careless, negligent, sloppy | If you have a full-time job outside the home, you may find it exceedingly difficult to be a meticulous housekeeper.정규직으로 일한다면 매우 꼼꼼한 살림꾼이 되기는 대단히 어려울 수 있다. |
| nostalgianah·STAL·juh | (n.) | 과거에 대한 그리움, 향수 | — | Looking at old scrapbooks and reading old letters can bring on a vague sense of nostalgia for days gone by and friends no longer near.오래된 사진첩을 보고 옛 편지를 읽으면 지나간 날들과 더 이상 가까이 없는 친구들에 대한 막연한 그리움이 밀려온다. | |
| quintessencekwin·TES·uhns | (n.) | 가장 순수한 본질, 정수, 전형 | paragon, exemplar | — | Risking one's own life to save the lives of others is considered the quintessence of selfless valor.다른 이의 생명을 구하기 위해 자기 목숨을 거는 것은 헌신적 용기의 정수로 여겨진다. |
| retrogressret·ruh·GRES | (v.) | 퇴보하다, 후퇴하다 | revert, degenerate, decline | advance, evolve, progress | In the novel, the survivors of a nuclear explosion retrogress into a state of barbarism and anarchy.그 소설에서 핵폭발 생존자들은 야만과 무질서 상태로 퇴보한다. |
| scrutinizeSKROO·tuh·nyz | (v.) | 면밀히 살펴보다 | inspect, pore over | scan, glance at | Lawyers are paid to scrutinize legal papers and explain the fine print to their clients.변호사들은 법률 문서를 면밀히 살펴보고 세부 조항을 고객에게 설명하는 대가로 돈을 받는다. |
| tepidTEP·id | (adj.) | 미지근한; 열의 없는 | insipid, halfhearted | heated, enthusiastic | A cup of tepid tea will not warm you up on a chilly morning.미지근한 차 한 잔은 쌀쌀한 아침에 몸을 데워주지 못한다. |
| Word | POS | 뜻 | Synonyms | Antonyms | Example |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| adversaryAD·vuhr·ser·ee | (n.) | 적, 상대자 | antagonist, foe | friend, ally, supporter, confederate | A best friend off the tennis court can also be a fierce adversary on it.코트를 벗어나면 가장 친한 친구도 코트 위에서는 만만치 않은 적수가 될 수 있다. |
| alienateAY·lee·uh·nayt | (v.) | 멀어지게 하다, 소원하게 하다, 적대적으로 만들다, 양도하다 | separate, drive apart, estrange | befriend, attract, captivate | Gossiping and backbiting are bad habits that are bound to alienate friends.뒷담화와 험담은 결국 친구들을 멀어지게 만드는 나쁜 습관이다. |
| artificeAR·tuh·fis | (n.) | 교묘한 장치, 계략, 잔재주, 속임수 | ruse, stratagem, contrivance | — | Even the most renowned art experts were completely taken in by the forger's artifice.가장 명망 있는 미술 전문가들조차 위조범의 교묘한 술책에 완전히 속아 넘어갔다. |
| coercekoh·URS | (v.) | 강요하다, 억지로 시키다 | pressure, bully, constrain | persuade, cajole | Dictators try to coerce their subjects into obedience by threatening them or their families with punishment.독재자들은 국민이나 그 가족을 처벌로 위협하여 복종을 강요하려 한다. |
| cravenKRAY·vuhn | (adj.) / (n.) | 겁 많은, 비겁한; 겁쟁이 | (adj.) fearful, fainthearted, pusillanimous | (adj.) brave, courageous, valiant | Those who urged Great Britain to make peace with Hitler were criticized for their craven attitude.히틀러와 평화 협정을 맺자고 촉구했던 사람들은 그 비겁한 태도로 비판받았다. |
| culinaryKYOO·luh·ner·ee | (adj.) | 요리의, 주방과 관련된 | — | Cooking shows on television have helped many people to master the secrets of the culinary arts.TV 요리 프로그램은 많은 사람이 요리 예술의 비법을 터득하도록 도왔다. | |
| demisedih·MYZE | (n.) | 죽음(특히 신분이 높은 사람의) | decease, passing away | birth, commencement | Traditionally, the tolling of church bells has announced the demise of a monarch.전통적으로 교회 종소리는 군주의 죽음을 알려 왔다. |
| exhilarateeg·ZIL·uh·rayt | (v.) | 생기를 불어넣다, 기운 나게 하다, 들뜨게 하다 | stimulate, excite, gladden | discourage, dispirit, dishearten, inhibit | The first landing on the moon, in the summer of 1969, exhilarated the nation.1969년 여름 최초의 달 착륙은 온 국민을 들뜨게 했다. |
| fallowFAL·oh | (adj.) / (n.) / (v.) | 갈아엎었지만 씨를 뿌리지 않은, 활동을 쉬는, 적갈색의; 휴경지; 갈아엎고 씨를 뿌리지 않다 | (adj.) unproductive, dormant | (adj.) productive, fertile, prolific | After a month without a date, I decided that my social life was definitely in a fallow period.한 달 동안 데이트 한 번 못 하고 나서, 나는 내 사교 생활이 완전히 침체기에 접어들었다고 판단했다. |
| harasshuh·RASS | (v.) | 괴롭히다, 성가시게 하다, 반복적으로 공격해 시달리게 하다 | annoy, bedevil, beleaguer | — | The judge repeatedly cautioned the prosecuting attorney not to harass the witness.판사는 검사에게 증인을 괴롭히지 말라고 거듭 주의를 주었다. |
| inclementin·KLEM·uhnt | (adj.) | 험한, 궂은(날씨), 태도나 행동이 냉혹한 | blustery, tempestuous, implacable | mild, gentle, balmy | During an inclement New England winter, heavy snowfalls may bring highway traffic to a standstill.뉴잉글랜드의 혹독한 겨울에는 폭설로 고속도로 교통이 마비되기도 한다. |
| liquidateLIK·wih·dayt | (v.) | 빚을 갚다, 청산하다, 제거하다 | reconcile, pay, cancel, exterminate | invest, collect | After a profitable year, the business was able to liquidate its loan.수익이 좋았던 한 해를 보낸 뒤, 그 회사는 대출금을 전부 갚을 수 있었다. |
| museMYOOZ | (v.) | 골똘히 생각하다, 명상하다 | contemplate, daydream | — | Philosophers have always mused on the meaning of life.철학자들은 언제나 삶의 의미에 대해 골똘히 생각해 왔다. |
| negligibleNEG·luh·juh·buhl | (adj.) | 무시해도 될 정도로 하찮은 | trivial, inconsequential, insignificant | significant, crucial, momentous | After taxes are deducted, a small raise in salary may result in a negligible increase in take-home pay.세금을 공제하고 나면, 약간의 급여 인상은 실수령액에서 무시해도 될 정도의 증가로 그칠 수 있다. |
| perpetuatepuhr·PECH·oo·ayt | (v.) | 영구화하다, 지속시키다 | continue, preserve, prolong indefinitely | discontinue, abolish, abandon | In most cultures, people try to perpetuate the customs of their ancestors.대부분의 문화권에서 사람들은 조상들의 관습을 영구히 이어가려 한다. |
| precedentPRES·uh·duhnt | (n.) | 선례, 전례 | guide, tradition, model | — | We hope that students at other schools in our city will follow our precedent in volunteer work and charitable contributions.우리는 이 도시의 다른 학교 학생들도 자원봉사와 자선 기부에서 우리가 세운 선례를 따르기를 바란다. |
| punitivePYOO·nuh·tiv | (adj.) | 처벌의, 응징의 | penalizing, retaliatory | — | The general led a punitive expedition against the rebel forces.장군은 반군 세력에 맞서 응징 원정을 이끌었다. |
| redressree·DRESS | (v.) / (n.) | 바로잡다, 시정하다; 배상, 구제 | (v.) correct, mitigate | — | An apology can go a long way to redress the hurt feelings caused by an insensitive comment or a thoughtless act.사과는 무신경한 말이나 경솔한 행동으로 상한 감정을 바로잡는 데 큰 도움이 될 수 있다. |
| sojournSOH·juhrn | (n.) / (v.) | 일시적 체류; 잠시 머물다 | (n.) visit, brief stay | — | No matter how short your sojourn in Paris, you must take time to go to the Louvre.파리에서의 체류가 아무리 짧아도, 시간을 내어 루브르 박물관에는 꼭 가봐야 한다. |
| urbaneuhr·BAYN | (adj.) | 세련된, 품위 있는, 노련한 | elegant | crude, uncouth | An urbane host puts guests at ease by appearing totally confident and unruffled no matter what happens.세련된 주인은 어떤 일이 일어나도 한결같이 자신만만하고 침착한 태도를 보여 손님을 편안하게 해준다. |
| Word | POS | 뜻 | Synonyms | Antonyms | Example |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| affiliateduh·FIL·ee·ayt·id | (adj.) | 관련된, 연계된 | attached, related, joined | dissociated, unconnected | Being affiliated with a well-known law firm is often an important first step on the way to a successful political career.유명 법률 회사와 관련되어 있는 것은 흔히 성공적인 정치 경력으로 가는 중요한 첫걸음이다. |
| ascertainas·er·TAYN | (v.) | 알아내다, 확인하다 | discover, establish | — | We need to ascertain what it will cost to remodel our kitchen.우리는 부엌을 리모델링하는 데 비용이 얼마나 들지 알아내야 한다. |
| attainmentuh·TAYN·muhnt | (n.) | 성취, 업적 | achievement, fulfillment | failure, defeat, frustration | In addition to his abilities as a leader, Abraham Lincoln was a man of high literary attainment.지도자로서의 능력 외에도, 에이브러햄 링컨은 뛰어난 문학적 성취를 이룬 사람이었다. |
| bequeathbi·KWEETH | (v.) | 유산으로 남기다, 물려주다 | transmit, bestow | — | Few people will make enough money in their lifetimes to be in a position to bequeath a fortune to their heirs.평생 재산을 상속인에게 물려줄 수 있을 만큼 많은 돈을 버는 사람은 드물다. |
| cogentKOH·juhnt | (adj.) | 설득력 있는, 강력한; 적절한, 정곡을 찌르는 | persuasive, compelling | weak, unconvincing, ineffective, irrelevant | A group of legal scholars held a press conference to present a cogent plea for reform of the state's prison system.한 무리의 법학자들이 기자회견을 열어 주 교도소 제도 개혁을 위한 설득력 있는 탄원을 발표했다. |
| convergekuhn·VURJ | (v.) | 한 점으로 모이다, 집중하다 | meet, unite, intersect, merge | diverge, separate | The television coverage resumed as soon as the delegates converged on the hall to hear the keynote speaker's address.대표단이 기조연설자의 연설을 듣기 위해 홀로 모여들자마자 텔레비전 중계가 재개되었다. |
| dispersedi·SPURS | (v.) | 흩어지다, 흩뜨리다 | break up, dispel | collect, congregate, assemble, muster | When a scuffle broke out, the commissioner ordered the police to disperse the crowd.몸싸움이 벌어지자 서장은 경찰에게 군중을 해산시키라고 명령했다. |
| esteemes·TEEM | (v.) / (n.) | 높이 평가하다, 존경하다; 존경, 호평 | respect, honor, revere | disdain, scorn, contempt | In many of the world's cultures, young people are taught to esteem their ancestors.세계 많은 문화권에서 젊은이들은 조상을 공경하도록 배운다. |
| expungeik·SPUNJ | (v.) | 지우다, 삭제하다, 말살하다 | efface, annihilate | insert, mark, imprint, impress | The judge ordered the remarks expunged from the court record.판사는 그 발언을 법정 기록에서 삭제하라고 명령했다. |
| finiteFY·nit | (adj.) | 한정된, 유한한 | bounded, measurable | unlimited, immeasurable, everlasting, eternal | There are only a finite number of possible answers to a multiple-choice question.객관식 문제에는 가능한 답이 한정된 개수만 있을 뿐이다. |
| invulnerablein·VUL·ner·uh·buhl | (adj.) | 상처 입힐 수 없는, 공격에 끄떡없는 | impregnable, impervious, immune | exposed, unprotected, defenseless | Medieval lords did everything possible to make their castles invulnerable fortresses.중세의 영주들은 성을 공격에 끄떡없는 요새로 만들기 위해 온갖 노력을 다했다. |
| malevolentmuh·LEV·uh·luhnt | (adj.) | 악의적인, 심술궂은 | malicious, wicked, sinister, malignant | kind, benevolent, compassionate | While pretending to be a loyal friend, Iago told Othello malevolent lies.충직한 친구인 척하면서, 이아고는 오셀로에게 악의적인 거짓말을 했다. |
| nonchalantnahn·shuh·LAHNT | (adj.) | 태연한, 무관심한 | composed, unruffled, blasé | perturbed, agitated, disconcerted, abashed | The elegantly dressed couple strolled down the boulevard with a nonchalant air.우아하게 차려입은 커플은 태연한 태도로 대로를 거닐었다. |
| omniscientahm·NISH·uhnt | (adj.) | 모든 것을 아는, 전지한 | wise, all-knowing | ignorant, unknowing | Scientists today have so much specialized knowledge that they sometimes seem omniscient.오늘날 과학자들은 워낙 전문화된 지식을 갖고 있어서 때로는 모든 것을 아는 것처럼 보인다. |
| panaceapan·uh·SEE·uh | (n.) | 만병통치약, 모든 문제의 해결책 | universal cure | — | You are mistaken if you think that getting more money will be a panacea for all your troubles.돈을 더 버는 것이 당신의 모든 문제에 만병통치약이 될 것이라고 생각한다면 오산이다. |
| scrupulousSKROO·pyuh·luhs | (adj.) | 세심한, 꼼꼼한; 도덕적으로 엄격한, 양심적인 | painstaking, meticulous, conscientious | careless, negligent, remiss, dishonest | Scientists are trained to record their observations with scrupulous accuracy.과학자들은 관찰 내용을 세심하게 정확히 기록하도록 훈련받는다. |
| skulkSKUHLK | (v.) | 살금살금 돌아다니다, 숨어 지내다 | lurk, slink, prowl | — | The burglar skulked in the alley looking for a way to get into the darkened jewelry store without attracting the attention of anyone who might be nearby.그 강도는 어두워진 보석상에 남의 눈에 띄지 않고 들어갈 방법을 찾아 골목에서 살금살금 돌아다녔다. |
| supercilioussoo·per·SIL·ee·uhs | (adj.) | 거만한, 경멸하는; 우월감에서 비롯된 오만한 | snobbish, patronizing, overbearing | humble, meek, deferential, servile | Their supercilious attitude toward their servants was extremely offensive.하인들을 대하는 그들의 거만한 태도는 매우 무례했다. |
| uncannyuhn·KAN·ee | (adj.) | 이상한, 기이한, 설명하기 힘든 | inexplicable, spooky | — | It is highly unusual for a beginner to display such an uncanny skill at playing bridge.초보자가 브리지 게임에서 그렇게 이상할 만큼 뛰어난 실력을 보이는 것은 매우 드문 일이다. |
| venialVEE·nee·uhl | (adj.) | 쉽게 용서되는, 용서할 만한 | excusable, forgivable | inexcusable, unforgivable, unpardonable | Someone whose offense is deemed by the judge to be venial may be ordered to perform community service.판사가 용서할 만하다고 판단한 잘못을 저지른 사람은 사회봉사를 하라는 명령을 받을 수 있다. |
| Word | POS | 뜻 | Synonyms | Antonyms | Example |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| altruistical·troo·IS·tik | (adj.) | 이타적인, 남을 위하는 | selfless | selfish, self-centered | Most people support altruistic programs to help the less fortunate of this world.대부분의 사람들은 이 세상의 불우한 이들을 돕는 이타적인 프로그램을 지지한다. |
| assentuh·SENT | (v.) / (n.) | 동의하다, 승낙하다; 동의, 승낙 | (v.) consent, concur | (v.) disagree, differ, dissent | Workers hope that the threat of a long strike will force management to assent to their demands.노동자들은 장기 파업 위협이 경영진으로 하여금 그들의 요구에 동의하게 만들기를 바란다. |
| benefactorBEN·uh·fak·tur | (n.) | 은인, 후원자 | patron, humanitarian | misanthrope, malefactor | Without the help of many benefactors, most charities would be unable to carry out their work.많은 후원자들의 도움이 없다면 대부분의 자선단체는 그들의 활동을 수행할 수 없을 것이다. |
| chivalrousSHIV·uhl·ruhs | (adj.) | 기사도적인, 예의 바르고 용감한 | civil, valiant, courtly | uncouth, churlish, loutish | In today's busy world, where people are often heedless of others, a chivalrous act is admired by all.사람들이 종종 남을 신경 쓰지 않는 오늘날의 바쁜 세상에서, 기사도적인 행동은 모두에게 찬사를 받는다. |
| clemencyKLEM·uhn·see | (n.) | 자비, 관대함; 온화함 | leniency, forbearance, gentleness | harshness, severity, cruelty, inflexibility | Many judges are willing to show clemency to first offenders who express regret for their wrongdoing.많은 판사들은 자신의 잘못에 대해 뉘우침을 보이는 초범에게 기꺼이 관용을 베푼다. |
| dearthDARTH | (n.) | 부족, 결핍; 기근 | insufficiency, want, paucity | surplus, oversupply, glut, abundance | An employer may complain of a dearth of qualified applicants for available jobs.고용주는 채용 가능한 일자리에 자격을 갖춘 지원자가 부족하다고 불평할 수 있다. |
| diffidentDIF·uh·duhnt | (adj.) | 수줍은, 자신 없는; 조심스러운 | timid, bashful, unassertive, withdrawn | bold, brash, audacious, self-confident, jaunty | Many a diffident suitor has lost his beloved to a bold rival.많은 소심한 구혼자가 대담한 경쟁자에게 사랑하는 이를 빼앗겼다. |
| discrepancydis·KREP·uhn·see | (n.) | 차이, 불일치 | disagreement, divergence, inconsistency | agreement, convergence, consistency | Discrepancies in the testimony of witnesses to a crime can have a decisive impact on the outcome of a trial.범죄 목격자 증언 사이의 불일치는 재판 결과에 결정적인 영향을 미칠 수 있다. |
| embarkem·BARK | (v.) | 승선하다; 착수하다; 투자하다 | commence, begin, board | — | Columbus spent years raising money before he was able to embark on his perilous ocean voyage in search of a passage to the Far East.콜럼버스는 극동으로 가는 항로를 찾기 위한 위험한 항해에 나서기 전까지 여러 해 동안 자금을 모았다. |
| facileFAS·uhl | (adj.) | 쉽게 이루어진, 손쉬운; 피상적인; 유창한, 성의 없이 드러나는 | effortless, assured, poised, specious | labored, awkward, halting | Writing is a facile process for some authors but a laborious task for others.글쓰기는 어떤 작가들에게는 손쉬운 과정이지만 다른 이들에게는 힘겨운 작업이다. |
| indomitablein·DOM·uh·tuh·buhl | (adj.) | 불굴의, 굴하지 않는 | unbeatable, invincible, unyielding | surrendering, submissive, yielding | All who hear of the remarkable deeds of Harriet Tubman admire her indomitable courage in the face of grave danger.해리엇 터브먼의 놀라운 행적을 듣는 모든 사람은 중대한 위험 앞에서도 굴하지 않는 그녀의 용기에 감탄한다. |
| infalliblein·FAL·uh·buhl | (adj.) | 오류가 없는, 절대 확실한 | unerring, certain | imperfect | Some critics seem convinced that their expert knowledge makes them infallible judges of the quality of an artist's work.일부 비평가들은 자신의 전문 지식 덕분에 자신이 예술 작품의 질을 판단하는 데 절대 틀리지 않는다고 확신하는 듯하다. |
| plodPLOD | (v.) | 터벅터벅 걷다; 꾸준히 일하다 | lumber, trudge | scamper, skip, prance | After the blizzard, we had to plod through deep snowdrifts to reach the nearest stores.눈보라가 지나간 후 우리는 가장 가까운 상점에 가기 위해 깊이 쌓인 눈더미를 터벅터벅 헤쳐 나가야 했다. |
| pungentPUHN·juhnt | (adj.) | 톡 쏘는, 자극적인 | sharp, spicy, piquant, racy | unappetizing, colorless, insipid | The kitchen of the French restaurant was filled with the pungent aroma of onion soup.그 프랑스 레스토랑의 주방은 양파 수프의 톡 쏘는 향으로 가득했다. |
| remissri·MIS | (adj.) | 태만한, 부주의한 | negligent, lax, slack | scrupulous, dutiful, punctilious | When I am remiss in doing daily chores, I have to spend a big part of the weekend catching up.매일의 집안일을 소홀히 하면 주말의 많은 시간을 밀린 일을 처리하는 데 써야 한다. |
| reposeri·POHZ | (v.) / (n.) | 쉬다, 눕다, 두다; 휴식, 평온, 평정 | (v.) sleep; (n.) tranquility, respite | (n.) exertion, wakefulness, tumult, bustle, ado | The mortal remains of thousands who fell in America's wars repose in Arlington National Cemetery.미국의 전쟁에서 전사한 수천 명의 유해가 알링턴 국립묘지에 안장되어 있다. |
| temeritytuh·MER·uh·tee | (n.) | 무모함, 대담함 | recklessness, foolhardiness, effrontery | timidity, fearfulness, diffidence, humility | Few of his subordinates had the temerity to answer the general back.그의 부하들 중 장군에게 말대꾸할 만한 대담함을 가진 이는 거의 없었다. |
| truculentTRUHK·yuh·luhnt | (adj.) | 사납고 잔인한; 공격적인; 신랄한 | savage, belligerent, vitriolic | gentle, mild, unthreatening | People with truculent dispositions can make life miserable for those who have to work with them.사납고 공격적인 성향을 가진 사람은 함께 일해야 하는 이들의 삶을 힘겹게 만들 수 있다. |
| unfeigneduhn·FAYND | (adj.) | 진실한, 꾸밈없는 | genuine, heartfelt | insincere, simulated, phony | The novelist won high praise for her ability to portray the unfeigned emotions of children.그 소설가는 아이들의 꾸밈없는 감정을 그려내는 능력으로 큰 찬사를 받았다. |
| virulentVIR·yuh·luhnt | (adj.) | 맹독성의; 악의에 찬, 신랄한 | noxious, baneful, hateful | harmless, benign | The First Amendment protects the right of free speech for everyone, even those with virulent views that are repugnant to most people.수정헌법 제1조는 대다수에게 불쾌감을 주는 악의에 찬 견해를 가진 사람이라도 모든 이의 언론의 자유를 보호한다. |
| Word | POS | 뜻 | Synonyms | Antonyms | Example |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| accedeak·SEED | (v.) | 응하다, 동의하다, (지위 등에) 취임하다 | consent, concur, comply, assent | demur, balk at | Management was not willing to accede to labor's initial demands, thus increasing the likelihood of a long and bitter strike.경영진은 노동측의 초기 요구에 응할 의사가 없었고, 이는 길고 격렬한 파업 가능성을 높였다. |
| brandishBRAN·dish | (v.) | (위협하듯) 휘두르다, 흔들다 | swing, shake | — | I brandished my umbrella repeatedly in a vain effort to hail a cab.나는 택시를 잡으려는 헛된 노력으로 우산을 계속 휘둘렀다. |
| comprisekuhm·PRYZE | (v.) | 포함하다, 구성되다 | compose, constitute, encompass | exclude | Classical symphonies usually comprise three or four movements of varying musical form, tempo, and character.고전 교향곡은 보통 형식, 템포, 성격이 다양한 3~4개의 악장으로 구성된다. |
| deftDEFT | (adj.) | 능숙한, 재빠른 | dexterous, adroit, proficient, clever, masterful | clumsy, awkward, bungling, inept | The deft fingers of Spanish seamstresses produced some of the finest, most delicate lace ever seen.스페인 재봉사들의 능숙한 손가락은 지금까지 본 것 중 가장 정교하고 섬세한 레이스를 만들어냈다. |
| destituteDES·tuh·toot | (adj.) | 궁핍한, ~이 없는 | wanting, devoid, penniless | rich, luxurious, bountiful, full, replete | Some people fled their homes so suddenly that they arrived at the refugee camp absolutely destitute.어떤 사람들은 너무 갑자기 집을 떠나서 난민 캠프에 도착했을 때 완전히 빈털터리였다. |
| explicitek·SPLIS·it | (adj.) | 명확한, 명료하게 진술된 | distinct, forthright, unambiguous, clear | vague, ambiguous, implied, implicit | The more explicit your directions are, the easier it will be for all of us to find our way to the campsite.지시 사항이 명확할수록 우리 모두가 캠프장으로 가는 길을 찾기가 더 쉬워질 것이다. |
| extirpateEK·ster·payt | (v.) | 뿌리 뽑다, 근절하다 | uproot, eradicate, wipe out, excise | implant, sow, foster, nourish | We must do everything we can to extirpate racism from American society.우리는 미국 사회에서 인종차별을 뿌리 뽑기 위해 할 수 있는 모든 것을 해야 한다. |
| inopportunein·ahp·er·TOON | (adj.) | 시기가 나쁜, 부적절한 | ill-timed, inconvenient, inappropriate, unsuitable | timely, convenient, felicitous, opportune | Why do my relatives always seem to turn up at the most inopportune time imaginable?왜 내 친척들은 항상 상상할 수 있는 가장 안 좋은 때에 나타나는 것 같을까? |
| ironiceye·RAH·nik | (adj.) | 예상과 다른, 반어적인, 빈정대는 | incongruous, satiric, sardonic, wry | straightforward, unequivocal | The short stories of O. Henry are famous for their ironic endings.오 헨리의 단편소설들은 반전이 있는 결말로 유명하다. |
| mustyMUHS·tee | (adj.) | 곰팡내 나는, 케케묵은 | hackneyed, antiquated | sweet-smelling, up-to-date, brand-new | Houses that have been closed up for a very long time often have an unpleasantly musty smell about them.아주 오랫동안 닫혀 있던 집들은 종종 불쾌하게 곰팡내 나는 냄새가 난다. |
| officiousuh·FISH·uhs | (adj.) | 참견하는, 지나치게 나서는 | meddlesome, prying, impertinent, obtrusive | reserved, diffident, timid, aloof | The manager of the store warned the entire sales force not to be too officious when helping customers.매장 매니저는 전체 영업 사원들에게 고객을 도울 때 너무 지나치게 나서지 말라고 경고했다. |
| ominousAH·muh·nuhs | (adj.) | 불길한, 위협적인 | unpropitious, inauspicious, portentous | propitious, auspicious, promising | The ominous sound of distant thunder warned us of the storm's approach.멀리서 들리는 불길한 천둥소리가 폭풍이 다가오고 있음을 알려주었다. |
| pinnaclePIN·uh·kuhl | (n.) | 정점, 절정 | apex, acme, summit, apogee | nadir, perigee, low point | Some pop musicians reach the pinnacle of their careers comparatively early in life.일부 팝 뮤지션들은 비교적 인생 초반에 자기 경력의 정점에 도달한다. |
| premeditatedpree·MED·uh·tay·tid | (adj.) | 미리 계획된, 사전에 의도된 | preplanned, rehearsed, prearranged | unplanned, spontaneous, impromptu | Some crimes are spontaneous acts of passion; others are quite premeditated.어떤 범죄는 순간적인 충동에서 나온 행동이지만, 다른 범죄는 상당히 사전에 계획된 것이다. |
| rampantRAM·puhnt | (adj.) | 걷잡을 수 없이 퍼지는, 만연한 | widespread, unrestrained, extravagant, prevalent | controlled, restrained | All kinds of odd rumors run rampant during a political campaign.정치 캠페인 기간 동안에는 온갖 이상한 소문들이 걷잡을 수 없이 퍼진다. |
| solaceSAH·luhs | (n.) / (v.) | 위안, 위로; 위로하다, 달래다 | (v.) soothe, reassure, cheer up | (v.) vex, aggravate, upset | Many world leaders seek solace from the cares of state in the pages of great literature.많은 세계 지도자들은 국정의 근심으로부터 벗어날 위안을 위대한 문학 작품 속에서 찾는다. |
| statelySTAYT·lee | (adj.) | 위엄 있는, 장엄한 | grand, magnificent, imposing | lowly, humble, servile, abject | The stately procession slowly wound its way from the palace to the cathedral.위엄 있는 행렬이 궁전에서 대성당까지 천천히 나아갔다. |
| suppleSUHP·uhl | (adj.) | 잘 휘는, 유연한 | flexible, limber, pliable, pliant | rigid, unbending, hidebound | Have you ever read Robert Frost's famous poem about swinging on the supple branches of a birch tree?자작나무의 유연한 가지에 매달려 그네를 타는 것에 관한 로버트 프로스트의 유명한 시를 읽어본 적이 있는가? |
| suppresssuh·PRESS | (v.) | 억누르다, 진압하다 | subdue, crush, stifle, squelch, quash, silence | provoke, spur, arouse, incite, instigate | Totalitarian governments usually take strong measures to suppress free speech.전체주의 정부는 대개 언론의 자유를 억누르기 위해 강경한 조치를 취한다. |
| venalVEE·nuhl | (adj.) | 매수될 수 있는, 부패한 | dishonest, bribable, corruptible, mercenary | honest, incorruptible, scrupulous | The presence of even one venal official may jeopardize the integrity of an entire organization.단 한 명의 부패한 관리라도 있으면 조직 전체의 청렴성이 위태로워질 수 있다. |
| Word | POS | 뜻 | Synonyms | Antonyms | Example |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| abhorab·HOR | (v.) | 혐오하다, 몹시 싫어하다 | detest, despise, abominate | admire, cherish, respect, relish | A pacifist is someone who abhors violence in all its forms.평화주의자는 모든 형태의 폭력을 혐오하는 사람이다. |
| amenduh·MEND | (v.) | 공식적으로 고치다, 개선하다 | modify, improve, correct | — | If you are not doing well in a particular subject, you may want to amend your way of studying it.특정 과목에서 성적이 좋지 않다면, 공부하는 방식을 고치고 싶을 것이다. |
| buffetbuh·FET | (v.) / (n.) | 후려치다, 연달아 강타하다, 힘겹게 헤쳐 나가다; 강타, 타격 | (v.) sock, thump, pummel, toss about | — | Blinding snowstorms buffeted the barren landmass of Antarctica for months on end.눈이 앞을 가리는 폭설이 몇 달 동안 남극 대륙의 황량한 땅을 계속 강타했다. |
| chaosKAY·ahs | (n.) | 대혼란, 무질서 | anarchy, turmoil | order, regularity, tranquillity | A great many people lost their fortunes and even their lives in the chaos brought on by the French Revolution.프랑스 혁명이 불러온 대혼란 속에서 수많은 사람들이 재산은 물론 목숨까지 잃었다. |
| commodiouskuh·MOH·dee·uhs | (adj.) | 널찍한, 공간이 넉넉한 | comfortable, ample, capacious | cramped, claustrophobic, insufficient | No one would expect a tiny studio apartment to have particularly commodious closets.그 누구도 작은 원룸 아파트에 유난히 널찍한 벽장이 있으리라고는 기대하지 않을 것이다. |
| corrosivekuh·ROH·siv | (adj.) | 서서히 부식시키는, 산성의; 신랄하게 비꼬는 | caustic, mordant, acidulous, spiteful | bland, mild, benign, amiable | Sulfuric acid is one of the most corrosive substances known to chemistry.황산은 화학에 알려진 가장 부식성이 강한 물질 중 하나다. |
| discerndih·SURN | (v.) | 뚜렷이 보다, 분간하다 | perceive, detect, distinguish | overlook | It is a jury's job to discern the truth by carefully evaluating all the evidence presented at trial.재판에서 제시된 모든 증거를 꼼꼼히 검토하여 진실을 가려내는 것이 배심원의 임무다. |
| extantEK·stuhnt | (adj.) | 아직 존재하는, 현존하는 | surviving, in existence | extinct, vanished | The paintings of animals and human hands in Spain's Altamira caves are among the oldest extant specimens of Stone Age art.스페인 알타미라 동굴의 동물과 사람 손 그림은 현존하는 가장 오래된 석기 시대 미술품 중 하나다. |
| implicateIM·pluh·kayt | (v.) | 연루시키다, 관련짓다 | incriminate, entangle | absolve, exculpate | The suspects never stood trial because there was no solid evidence to implicate them in the daring series of robberies.그 대담한 연쇄 강도 사건에 용의자들을 연루시킬 확실한 증거가 없었기 때문에 그들은 재판을 받지 않았다. |
| interin·TUR | (v.) | 매장하다, 땅에 묻다 | unearth, exhume | Jewels and other objects once interred with Egypt's pharaohs can now be seen in numerous museums all over the world.한때 이집트 파라오와 함께 매장되었던 보석과 다른 유물들을 이제 전 세계 여러 박물관에서 볼 수 있다. | |
| martinetmar·tuh·NET | (n.) | 엄격한 규율가, 규칙에 철저한 사람 | taskmaster, slave driver | — | When it came to drilling troops, the Revolutionary War general Baron Friedrich von Steuben was something of a martinet.군대를 훈련시키는 일에 있어서, 독립전쟁의 장군 프리드리히 폰 슈토이벤 남작은 엄격한 규율가나 다름없었다. |
| obviateAHB·vee·ayt | (v.) | 미리 막다, 예방하다; 제거하다 | preclude, forestall, ward off | — | Vaccinations can do much to obviate the dangers of childhood illnesses.예방 접종은 소아 질병의 위험을 예방하는 데 큰 도움이 될 수 있다. |
| renegadeREN·uh·gayd | (n.) / (adj.) | 배신자, 탈당자, 무법자; 배반적인, 인습에 얽매이지 않는 | (n.) turncoat, heretic | (n.) loyalist, patriot | Many a writer has been labeled a renegade for refusing to conform to society's conventions.많은 작가들이 사회의 관습에 순응하기를 거부했다는 이유로 이단아로 낙인찍혀 왔다. |
| reprehensiblerep·rih·HEN·suh·buhl | (adj.) | 비난받아 마땅한, 지탄받을 | objectionable, blameworthy, culpable, odious | commendable, blameless, meritorious | Stalin eliminated many potential rivals by accusing them of all sorts of reprehensible acts that they did not commit.스탈린은 잠재적 경쟁자들을 그들이 저지르지도 않은 온갖 비난받아 마땅한 행위로 몰아 제거했다. |
| somberSAHM·ber | (adj.) | 어두운, 음울한; 침울한 | mournful, dismal | bright, sunny, lighthearted, jaunty | The atmosphere in the locker room of the losing team could best be described as somber.패배한 팀의 라커룸 분위기는 침울하다는 말로 가장 잘 표현될 수 있었다. |
| squalidSKWAH·lid | (adj.) | 누추한, 지저분한, 타락한 | dingy, sordid, foul, vile, abject | neat, spruce, exalted, lofty | Many laws prohibit the types of squalid working conditions found in sweatshops.많은 법률이 착취 공장에서 발견되는 것과 같은 열악하고 지저분한 노동 환경을 금지하고 있다. |
| turbulentTUR·byuh·luhnt | (adj.) | 무질서한, 소란스러운, 격렬한; 험난한 | tumultuous, unruly, agitated | calm, placid, tranquil, still | Letters and diary entries may reveal a person's lifelong struggle to gain some control over turbulent emotions.편지와 일기는 한 사람이 격렬한 감정을 다스리기 위해 평생 벌인 싸움을 드러낼 수 있다. |
| vociferousvoh·SIF·er·uhs | (adj.) | 시끄럽게 떠드는, 요란한 | clamorous, uproarious, blustering | quiet, soft-spoken, muted, subdued | Relief agencies regularly make vociferous appeals for aid for victims of war, terrorism, and natural disasters.구호 단체들은 전쟁, 테러, 자연재해 피해자들을 위한 지원을 요란하게 호소하곤 한다. |
| voluminousvuh·LOO·muh·nuhs | (adj.) | 방대한, 부피가 큰; 장황한 | bulky, massive, plentiful | scant, meager | The task of summarizing the voluminous reports issued by government agencies may fall to members of a legislator's staff.정부 기관이 발행한 방대한 보고서를 요약하는 일은 의원 보좌진의 몫이 될 수 있다. |
| waiveWAYV | (v.) | 자발적으로 포기하다; 잠시 미루다, 유보하다 | decline, relinquish, forgo | claim, accept | The senator agreed to waive opposition to the proposed bill if some of its more controversial provisions were substantially modified.그 상원의원은 법안의 더 논란이 되는 조항들이 상당 부분 수정된다면 반대를 철회하겠다고 동의했다. |
| Word | POS | 뜻 | Synonyms | Antonyms | Example |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| animosityan·uh·MOS·uh·tee | (n.) | 강한 반감; 지독한 적대감 | enmity, rancor, antipathy | affection, fondness, rapport, amity | The deep animosity between the Montagues and Capulets could not prevent Romeo and Juliet from falling in love.몬터규가와 캐풀럿가 사이의 깊은 반감도 로미오와 줄리엣이 사랑에 빠지는 것을 막지는 못했다. |
| apathyAP·uh·thee | (n.) | 무감각, 무관심 | indifference, disinterest, detachment | enthusiasm, fervor, ardor, concern | I was horrified when the sales force greeted my great idea for an ad campaign with total apathy.영업팀이 내 광고 캠페인 아이디어를 완전한 무관심으로 맞이했을 때 나는 경악했다. |
| apprehensiveap·ri·HEN·siv | (adj.) | 두려워하는, 걱정하는(특히 미래에 대해) | worried, nervous, fretful, jittery | unworried, assured, confident, certain | As the hurricane approached, apprehensive residents all along the coast prepared for the worst.허리케인이 다가오자 해안을 따라 사는 불안해하는 주민들은 최악의 상황에 대비했다. |
| commendkuh·MEND | (v.) | 칭찬하다, 인정하다; 추천하다; 맡기다 | applaud, entrust | abhor, loathe | The mayor commended the young people for their volunteer work at local hospitals and soup kitchens.시장은 지역 병원과 무료 급식소에서 봉사한 젊은이들을 칭찬했다. |
| compatiblekuhm·PAT·uh·buhl | (adj.) | 잘 어울리는, 화합하는; (기기 등이) 호환되는 | harmonious, in agreement | mismatched, incongruous, antagonistic | Eyewitness accounts of an accident rarely are totally compatible.사고 목격자들의 진술이 완전히 일치하는 경우는 드물다. |
| condolencekuhn·DOH·luhns | (n.) | 애도, 조문 | commiseration, solace, sympathy | — | A few well-chosen words of condolence can be a great comfort to someone who has lost a loved one.적절히 고른 몇 마디 조문의 말이 사랑하는 사람을 잃은 이에게 큰 위로가 될 수 있다. |
| consecrateKON·suh·krayt | (v.) | 신성하게 하다, 봉헌하다; 특별한 목적을 위해 따로 떼어두다 | devote, sanctify | desecrate, profane, dishonor | Traditionally most religious denominations hold special ceremonies to consecrate a new house of worship.전통적으로 대부분의 종교 교파는 새 예배당을 봉헌하기 위해 특별한 의식을 연다. |
| decrepitdi·KREP·it | (adj.) | 노쇠한, 낡고 허름한 | infirm, broken-down, rickety | vigorous, robust, sturdy | “I may be aging,” the famous movie star replied, “but I am hardly decrepit.”그 유명한 영화배우는 '나이는 들고 있을지 몰라도 노쇠하지는 않았다'고 대답했다. |
| deridedi·RYDE | (v.) | 조롱하다, 비웃다 | mock, scorn, disparage | praise, extol, acclaim, applaud | Most people find jokes that deride somebody's national origin or social background extremely offensive.대부분의 사람들은 누군가의 출신 국가나 사회적 배경을 조롱하는 농담을 매우 불쾌하게 여긴다. |
| ingenuousin·JEN·yoo·uhs | (adj.) | 순진한, 천진한; 솔직한, 진실한 | naive, artless, guileless, candid | artful, crafty, worldly, sophisticated | In his novels, Dickens has harsh words for those who take cruel advantage of ingenuous young people.디킨스는 소설에서 순진한 젊은이들을 잔인하게 이용하는 이들을 신랄하게 비판한다. |
| multifariousmul·tuh·FAIR·ee·uhs | (adj.) | 다양한, 각양각색의 | varied, manifold, heterogeneous | unvaried, uniform, homogeneous | Leonardo da Vinci's notebooks reveal that he was a man of multifarious interests.레오나르도 다빈치의 노트를 보면 그가 다양한 관심사를 가진 사람이었음을 알 수 있다. |
| obsoleteOB·suh·leet | (adj.) | 시대에 뒤떨어진, 더 이상 쓰이지 않는 | outmoded, passe, old hat | current, up-to-date, brand-new | In order to remain competitive, manufacturing companies periodically replace obsolete machinery.경쟁력을 유지하기 위해 제조업체들은 주기적으로 낡은 기계를 교체한다. |
| omnivorousom·NIV·uh·ruhs | (adj.) | 무엇이든 먹는, 잡식성의; 무엇이든 열심히 받아들이는 | all-devouring, voracious | — | An omnivorous animal has a greater chance of survival than one that depends on a single food source.잡식성 동물은 단일 먹이원에 의존하는 동물보다 생존 가능성이 더 높다. |
| parsimoniouspahr·suh·MOH·nee·uhs | (adj.) | 인색한, 쩨쩨한; 빈약한, 초라한 | frugal, niggardly, penny-pinching, cheap | generous, openhanded | Many people who lost money in the Great Depression later adhered to a parsimonious lifestyle, even during more prosperous times.대공황 때 돈을 잃은 많은 사람들은 이후 더 풍족한 시절에도 인색한 생활방식을 고수했다. |
| quandaryKWAHN·dree | (n.) | 곤경, 난감한 상태 | confusion, dilemma, predicament | — | Try as I might, I could see no way out of the ethical quandary in which I found myself.아무리 애써도 나는 스스로 처한 윤리적 곤경에서 빠져나갈 방법을 찾을 수 없었다. |
| recalcitrantri·KAL·suh·truhnt | (adj.) | 고집스럽게 반항하는, 권위에 저항하는 | unruly, obstinate, contrary, ornery | obedient, docile, compliant | A recalcitrant individual may have great difficulty adjusting to a job that requires a good deal of teamwork.고집스럽게 반항하는 사람은 팀워크가 많이 필요한 일에 적응하는 데 큰 어려움을 겪을 수 있다. |
| reprisalri·PRY·zuhl | (n.) | 보복, 앙갚음 | retaliation, revenge | — | The Highland clans of Scotland engaged in cattle rustling in reprisal for real or imagined injuries.스코틀랜드의 하일랜드 씨족들은 실제든 상상이든 입은 피해에 대한 보복으로 가축을 훔쳤다. |
| revelREV·uhl | (v.) / (n.) | 큰 즐거움을 느끼다; (명) 흥청거리는 축제 | (v.) relish, savor, bask in, carouse | (v.) abhor, loathe | Some movie stars do not revel in the attention that their fans and the media pay them.일부 영화배우들은 팬과 언론이 자신에게 쏟는 관심을 즐기지 않는다. |
| stultifySTUL·tuh·fye | (v.) | 무력하게 만들다, 쓸모없게 만들다; 무디게 하는 효과를 내다 | smother, stifle, neutralize, negate | arouse, excite, inspire, stimulate | Oppressive heat may stultify the mind and spirit as well as the body.지독한 더위는 몸뿐 아니라 정신과 마음까지 무디게 만들 수 있다. |
| suaveSWAHV | (adj.) | 세련되고 부드럽게 상냥한, 매끄러운 | sophisticated, urbane, polished | crude, clumsy, oafish, loutish | Nick Charles, the clever detective in the Thin Man movies, is a suave man-about-town.『그림자 없는 남자』 시리즈의 영리한 탐정 닉 찰스는 세련되고 매끄러운 사교계 인사다. |